Trier

                                        THE ROMAN BRIDGE OVER THE MOSEL RIVER                                                                                                                                              

I could not love a woman as much as I love Trier and my heart is heavy with sadness, for Covid 19 has come between us, but safe in my mind are the sweet memories of our last meeting.

My focus of writing this article is hopefully to encourage any readers to share with me the origin of Trier as it begins to reveal its self to archaeologists and to the historians of antiquity, and be seduced enough to want to visit this delightful German city.

 

THE PEOPLE OF THE DISTANT PAST INCLUDING THE TREVERI

In the many centuries before the birth of Christ most of Western Europe was inhabited by numerous and diverse pagan tribes. Perhaps some of the larger tribes would have a Royal house including a king. A tribes boundaries would have been defined by the lay of the land, which may have included hills, river valleys and a forest, while in other parts the boundaries would fluctuate.  Tribal warfare appears to have been a regular feature of their societies. They fought for political control, economic advantage and to conquer territory. Their internal wars prevented the unification of Gaul as did other migrating tribes like the Helvetii, which would have created more pressure on their valued land.

Between 58 BC and 50 BC Julius Caesar (B 12 July 100 BC - 17 march 45 BC) was responsible for the expansion of the then Roman Republic through what is now France and parts of Belgium and by conquering Gaul it allowed Rome to secure the natural border of the river Rhine. This was completed when he defeated Vercingetorix at the battle of Alesia in 52 B C.

Figure 1 and 2 courtesy E Wightman

We first hear of the Treveri tribe during Caesar’s campaigns in Gaul as he was astutely aware of their close relationships with some of the tribes across the Rhine, and with their Belgic neighbours to the north-west. Caesar enlightens us that the Treveri inhabited the land between the rivers Meuse and the Rhine, which would have been the middle and lower Mosel valley, and the low mountain ranges Eifel and Hunsruck, plus the now Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, and part of the Luxembourg province of Belgium. Caesar also informs us that this tribe had a reputation for fine horsemanship and it transpires that they seemingly had their own cavalry units. Although their cavalry were unreliable and unpredictable regarding their loyalty and had fought for and against Caesar. This was high-lighted in 57 BC when a unit of their cavalry fighting on behalf of Caesar were set against their Belgic neighbours. Then, in the face of a possible defeat, the Treveri deserted.

Caesar viewed the Treveri as a pretentious and a disruptive influence and being aware that their aristocratic leader Inoutiomarus who (died 53 BC) was anti Roman, Caesar promoted Inoutiomarus  Son-in Law Cingetorix, who was pro Roman, as the head of the Treveri.  Unperturbed Inoutiomarus now confiscates his Son-in-Law’s property and Caesar is forced into marching into Treveran territory with four legions and some cavalry. Unfortunately that year had seen a poor harvest which seemingly meant that the Roman army had to be split up into smaller units than usual, for they depended on the pro Roman tribes for their winter grain, but this also made them more vulnerable if attacked.

Titus Labienus, (B 100 B C--D 45 B C at Munda when he opposed Caesar during the final battle of the Roman Civil War) was Caesar’s Senior Legate and second -in –command. He was a skilled cavalry commander and was sent with just one legion, which was about three thousand men, to the frontier between the pro Roman Remi tribe and the Treveri. We are told that when the Roman camp was located it was besieged by the Treveri, and Indutiomarus is consequently killed during a skirmish with the Roman soldiers. But the Treveri now under the command of Indutiomarus relatives continued the revolt. History is disclosed to us that Labienus was saved from attack by the reinforcement of two legions dispatched to him by Caesar. Now, a confident Labienus leaves his camp with his legions, and on finding ground to his liking he engages and defeats the Treveri.

Cingetorix was now inaugurated as a “client” king, and his tribe take no part in the rebellion of Vercinetorix. However in 51 B C this tribe revolt again. Perhaps Cingetorix had died, and this was put down by Labienus.

Caesar, was acutely aware that this aggressive tribe, with their northern neighbours and friends across the Rhine could once again revolt so he chose to keep this army close by. For added security Caesar appointed Cummius to rule over the Morini, a Belgic coastal tribe in the modern Pas de Calais region.

Perhaps then, as suggested by archaeology and historians from the past, the Treveri were a people of mixed origins, who had within their history adopted a Celtic language and became unified and recognizable to Caesar as a distinct tribe.

 

                                                      THE WARRIOR KING COMMIUS

Commius was a true tribal warrior of his time, for he could be fiercely loyal, filled with a heartfelt and powerful intensity, although, history reveals to us that his loyalty wavered from being an ally of Caesar, to occasionally becoming his enemy.

In essence Commius was then king of the Atrebates, one of a large confederation of tribes known as the Belgae. They occupied Northern Gaul between the English Channel, the west-bank of the river Rhine and the northern bank of the river Seine. Seemingly before Caesar’s expedition to Britain in 55 B C Commius was sent ahead to the British tribes as his envoy, and then during Caesar’s second expedition to Britain in 54 B C, Commius we are told, negotiated the surrender of the warrior king Cassivellauns who led an alliance of tribes against Caesar.

But then during the winter of 53 B C the tangled web of politics surfaced once again. Labienus believing that Commius was the architect of a pending conspiracy with other Gaulish tribes plotted to assassinate him. The Roman Tribune Gaius Volusenus Quadratus and a number of Centurions lured Commius to a meeting but the assassination attempt failed. As Commius recovered from a severe head wound he never again associated with the Romans.

Consequently Commius and his Atrebates tribe fought against Caesar at Alesia, but with this battle lost he returned to England around 51B C. By 30 B C he seems to have established himself at Calleva Atrebatum, now recognized as Silchester. And from here, now being king of the Atrebates in Britain, he issued coins bearing his name.

Intriguingly in June 2008 and just 6 miles from Chichester at North Bersted an ancient burial was discovered and excavated. It was the grave of a mystery warrior and is now known as the North Bersted Man and his skeletal remains were radiocarbon dated between 194 -59 B C. I was secretly tantalised that this may have been the grave of Commius but there was not enough left of his cranium to pinpoint a healed head wound due to the acidic soil.

His skeletal remains and grave goods are now at the Novium museum in Chichester and can be viewed on the internet by searching for the North Bersted Man.

 

                                       THE EXPANDING INFLUENCE OF THE TREVERI

The geographical environment would have had a major influence on settlement as would the River Mosel/Moselle. This river drains the central and eastern area and being navigable was an important means of transport and communication, as were the prehistoric land routes and established thoroughfares.

The soil that covers the slaty rocks is mainly of poor quality and lacks depth, while over the high ground forest is the natural covering. The breeding of livestock and hunting were seemingly more important and worthwhile than agriculture. For some time the ruling elite of the Treveri had been establishing a tapestry of development and had begun to embroider it within their numerous settlements which had grown within their tribal boundaries. Between Birkenfeld and Saarbrucken the now exhausted mineral deposits including iron and copper would have generated immense income for their economy.

 TITELBERG FOUNDATIONS (WIKIPEDIA)

Titelberg now in present day Luxembourg, was possibly one of the main settlements of the pre –Roman Treveri tribe, and was possibly regarded as an oppidum, a major tribal centre. It was fortified and set in about 125 acres and within it was an area rich in iron-ore deposits. No doubt there were other important settlements/ hill forts. Some were controlled by aristocratic landowners and others perhaps were under the influence of local tribal leaders.

A mixture of people over many years conceivably developed into what is now known as the Treveri tribe, for numerous Celtic tribes were migrating great distances. And, it also seems that the Treveri spoke using a Celtic dialect.

The Treveri had developed a sophisticated economy and like multiple other tribes, were minting gold coins prior to the arrival of Caesar. The Treveran gold coins were identified by their distinctive pictorial markings. The coins on one side showed an eye seen sideways on, while on the reverse was a disjointed horse and a wheel. The wandering archaeologists cast an ocean of light upon the designs that were on the bronze coins. On one side was the bust of the goddess Venus and on the reverse, there may have been a flower, a bull or even a boar.

 

                                                               TRIBAL RELIGION

The religious practices of the local tribes is floating, and in all probability been lost in the gathering mists of time,… although for us geologists have produced the answers to the mysteries of the landscape while the indigenous inhabitants relied on their own interpretation, that certain Gods or spirits were responsible. They, therefore had an obligation to pay homage and to respect the continuing gifts from mother earth.

Numerous deities roamed the land and depending on the local natural physical environment, like oak-groves, lakes and fresh water springs, would have characterized which deities would have been revered. The worship was probably conducted by tribal elders using story- telling, verse and song. All of which would have been handed down through the generations by word of mouth.

After the Roman conquest many of their deities were seemingly associated with Roman equivalents and some were even coupled with the Roman gods and goddesses. A beacon of enlightenment was unveiled for us by the work of archaeologists of the past at the Irminenwingert Temple District on the western bank of the river Moselle near Trier. During the removal of much earth to make way for the building of some barracks numerous stone monuments were discovered. Inscribed artefacts suggest that it was the central sanctuary of the Treveri. It was pre- Roman and seemingly used until the time of the Roman emperor Gratian. Part of this sanctuary was dedicated to the Gods Lenus and Mars. Lenus was revered by the Treveri as a healing god, while Mars was the Roman god of war, and the protector of the tribe during battle.

Although the Treveri showed reverence to multiple deities, a few were more distinctive and perhaps even unique to their trible elders. Apparently, as suggested by others, the following deities of Inicona and Veraudunus, the Xultigiae, Ritona, and Intarabus could relate to earlier Celtic beliefs and customs.

The arrival of Christianity was seemingly a destabilizing influence for what is now perceived as Paganism, for during the reign of Gratian, who died aged 24 in 383AD, the then Emperor of this Western part of the Roman Empire, much damage was sustained in the Altbachtal ancient holy district within Trier.

In the valley basin of the Altbach below the Trier Amphitheatre excavations were carried out between 1926 and 1934 by Siegfried Loeschcke. Within an area of 5 hectares and to a depth of 5 meters, at least 70 temples and chapels were recognized as well as a number of priest houses and a cult theatre. Sadly after the 2^nd World war this region was filled with rubble and levelled, although many of the artefacts discovered during the excavations of 1926 and 1934 can now be viewed in the Rheiniches Landesmuseum in Trier.

THE ORIGINS OF ROMAN TRIER AND AN ERA OF PEACE AND EXPANSION

It may be that the higher land from the Petrisberg offered it’s self as a contender for the vicinity of a safe and prosperous settlement. The land descended moderately towards the river Moselle and therefore offered up a flood free site with the bonus of a known river crossing. Also Trier is ideally situated for a fort as it lies on the stretch of the river where routes from the south and west going towards the Rhineland must cross the Moselle.

In 27BC Octavian, the adopted son and heir of Julius Caesar, arose from the dust and grime of conflict to become the 1^st Roman Emperor, and he assumed the title of Augustus.

In all probability after the colony (of foreign- rule) was established a civitas, (a politically organized community) began to appear and this new expanding tribal centre perhaps became known as Augustus Treverorum. The name Augustus possibly used to show respect for the Roman Emperor, while Treverorum related to the local inhabitants. Under Augustus, Agrippa, the emperor’s faithful general, was a progressive Roman, filled with vision and positive intent. During his two periods of office he stimulated and help to plan three exceedingly important Roman roads. All went through the lands of the Treveri which would increase their transregional trade, while for the Roman army it was of benefit for their military deployment.

The road that started from Lyon was part of the long distance road network, and from Trier it progressed to Cologne which was the then capital of the Roman province of Germania inferior. Another came from the south and connected Metz in France with the now town of Dalheim in south-eastern Luxembourg and then on to Trier. It then went further to the river Rhine in the northeast, which was the then border of the Roman Empire. Another road from the southwest connected Reims in France with Niederanven in Luxembourg and then progressed to Trier. Interestingly archaeology has revealed to us that there was a pre-Roman bridge over the Moselle between Stadtbredimus and Palzem. This bridge would have carried tracks from the south and west bound for Hunsruck and/or for the area around Trier.

Around 16BC and following the reorganisation of the Roman provinces, the capital of Belgica was moved from Reims to Augusta Treverorum. Possibly, many local nobles from the Treveri tribe would have sought positions of authority and consequently were awarded Roman citizenship.

Tiberius succeeded his stepfather during 14AD and wished to expand the Roman Empire along the   Danube and modern day Germany. To help finance this he increased the amount of taxation coming in from Gaul. This only added to other under-laying issues, triggering a wave of discontent around 21AD.

After the brief reign of Caligula, the next Emperor Claudius in 41AD, recognized the strategic location of Trier, and consequently there was a rapid period of development. Claudius was a pioneering builder and he ordered the construction, not just around Trier, but across his empire, of numerous aqueducts, canals and roads.

 

THE GOOD THE BAD AND THE UGLY

By 459 AD Trier had become part of Charlemagne’s empire and was under the control of a people recognised by name as the Franks. Although Trier at various times was, as a result of the Napoleonic war under the control of the French in 1794, but during 1815 it had become German once again within the Kingdom of Prussia and it has remained part of the German nation ever since.

On reflection there was a disconcerting period of unrest during the last decade of the 2^nd century by the usurpation of imperial power by Decimus Clodius Albinus the then governor of Britain, when he crossed into Gaul with his army late in 196. Gratifyingly the Rhineland armies including the Treveri stayed loyal to Septimus Severus, and the threat to stability was averted. In consequence, perhaps, if you chose the wrong side there would have been some unpleasant repercussions.

Within Trier’s distance past it was the capital of the Roman Northern Territories of the Western Roman Empire for over 400 hundred years, during which it was the residence of eight emperors of Christianity. It was a key city of the Northern Territories and now it is the oldest city in Germany and is located in the German state of Rhineland- Palatinate and it celebrated its 2,000^th birthday in 1984.

It seems that around the middle and later part of the 1^st Century AD, the footsteps of urbanization tiptoed into the northern part of the then town, becoming a residential district, for the south, probably by now, was an industrial area with potteries. The eastern perimeter of the street grid was also residential while to the south east in the valley of the Altbach, which was the sacred precinct, solid foundations of early stone houses were detected. Also mosaics assembled with black and white tesserae depicting geometrical patterns, which would have been the current fashion during the 1^st century, were observed below and beside the basilica.

As the years tumbled away into oblivion Trier became more accepting to Romanization, for seemingly a new social structure expressed through architecture eventually began to emerge. Although it was religion rather than politics, for the population still served their Gods. Paganism, superstition beliefs, cults of the aristocrats, including the educated oriental cults, but Christianity with the promise of eternal life eventually had a strong cultural influence.

                                                  

THE ROMAN FORUM (NUMBER 8 ON THE MAP)       

During the 2^nd and 3^rd centuries AD Trier embarked on a development of some monumental public buildings and perhaps one of Trier’s first was the building of its Forum. This seems to have been built on a raised bank of earth, which would have made it an impressive and visual commanding site. Archaeology suggests that the complex was around 400m long and 150m wide. This building would become the beating heart of the city and would serve as a centre of administration, justice, business, and for important public meetings. Perhaps its construction would have been based on a known Roman Mediterranean design.

Archaeology seems to lead us towards the thought that there were two rows of shops/store rooms, one row facing inside the Forum, while the other row was facing to the outside, possibly to the north and to the south. Perhaps many of the streets were completely re-surfaced around this time, paved slabs replacing the then gravel, while Mediterranean architecture would have encouraged the construction of arcades and porticos, which offered up protection against adverse weather conditions. Also within the Forum lavish décor would have welcomed its visitors including mosaics, and brightly coloured murals.

                                                

THE FORUM BATH’S (NUMBER 9 ON THE MAP)

These Roman baths were rediscovered during 1987 when the construction works for an underground car park beneath the surface of the Viemarktplatz (Cattle Market Square) began. The baths were opened to visitors in June 1998 after being excavated by the Rheinisches Landesmuseum of Trier.

As the archaeologists pervaded with their excavations early Roman, perhaps 1^st Century AD, residential building remains were observed. Stemming from these a Capuchin monastery complex from the 17^th/18^th centuries was recorded. The cellar walls of the monastery were partly built directly on the foundations of the buildings of the Roman baths. Also much of the monastery was constructed using rubble from the buildings of the Roman period.

The bath complex would fall out of use during the early part of the 5^th century as Trier suffered the continued wrath of barbarian invasions and political turmoil. The complex today is housed within a modern glass cube.

With the abolition of the monastery in 1802, the Cattle Market Square was established and used as a market place and then became an area for parking. Perhaps a sad end to the place that was at one time the garden of the Capuchin monastery.

 

THE WARM BATH HALL (TEPIDARIUM)

THE AULA PALATINA (BASILIKA) (NUMBER 6 ON THE MAP)

Another massive and imposing structure, now known as the Basilika, which was reduced to ruins during the 2^nd World War, was investigated by archaeologists, and its present restoration is as accurate as possible. Its sheer size dominates that area of the city. It is 67m in length 27-5m in width and is at least 33m in height. During their excavations a bronze coin dated to the year 305 was found. In the distant past the Basilika was part of a complex of buildings, the layout of which is not yet completely understood. An early geometric mosaic, marble veneer and five hypocausts were excavated, one in the apse and four in the main hall of the building. In parts of the west wall and of the apse some of the original Roman work is still visible.

This prestigious and illustrious and enormous audience hall would have held the throne of the Emperor of the time. It would have been extravagantly and elaborately decorated with a wealth of rich colours and held many ornamented statues.

                                                     

At present the Basilika is a Protestant Church of the Redeemer and owned by a congregation within the Evangelical Church in the Rhineland. During 1986 it became part of a UNESCO World Heritage site.

INSIDE THE BASILIKA

Interestingly the skeleton of this construction is very unusual, for the walls are 2.70 cm thick and are built of tiles. These were laid in courses which were then separated by mortar layers. The mortar was nearly as thick as the tiles, and the amount of tiles required to complete this build would have been colossal.   

  

PART OF THE ORIGINAL ROMAN WEST WALL IN THE BASILIKA

 THE ROMAN DEFENSIVE WALLS OF TRIER

Trier was protected by a fortified city wall 6.4 kilometres in length protecting an area of 285 hectares. It was seemingly constructed around 170 AD. The wall was 6.4 metres high with a mortar and rubble core and faced with sandstone blocks. Apparently defensive towers and bastions were built at regulated intervals.

The settlements outside the city would also have required some protective fortifications which included Arlon, Pachten, Sarrbrucken Neumagen, Bitburg and Junkerath. The layout of their fortifications would have varied, governed by the local terrain. Some were rectangular, while others were polygonal or oval. Perhaps these were the efforts of land-owners working in groups or even as individuals. Some, perhaps, had military associations, although all had protruding towers built at close intervals.

THE MAIN GATES OF TRIER (NUMBER 1 ON THE MAP)

 

 THE PORTA NIGRA (STANDS CLOSE TO THE OLD ROMAN ROAD TO MAINZ)

There are four known city gates which stood at the ends of two main streets. One led north to south and the other east to west. Porta Alba the (White Gate) was in the east and the Porta Inclyta (Famous Gate) in the west, which was next to the Roman bridge across the Moselle. In the south was the Porta Media (Middle Gate) which was on the line of modern Saarstrasse. And then to the north was the Porta Nigra.

It has been suggested that perhaps a fifth gate existed at the amphitheatre. During archaeological excavations below the area where it crosses a steep but small valley of the Olewigerbach, and where a wall runs over a foundation of sandstone blocks, one was found bearing a quarry mark similar to ones from the Porta Nigra.

Religion was responsible for changing the fortunes of the Porta Nigra when on St Andrew’s Day in 1030 the hermit Simeon, at his request, was shut in the east tower of the ruined building. This Sicilian Byzantine monk came to Trier during 1027, rather than returning to St Catherine’s monastery, which was at the foot of Mount Sinai. His intention was to lead a life of seclusion. After Simeon’s death the Archbishop Poppo succeeded in having Simeon canonized, and the saint’s tomb became an attraction for pilgrimages. The gate was converted by Poppo to a double church, and the Church of St Simeon was dedicated about 1042. Also the Simeonstift  monastery was built next to the Porta Nigra to honour him.

Unfortunately between 1802 and 1804 Napoleon Bonaparte was responsible for much destruction in Trier. He initially dissolved the church within the Porta Nigra and the monastery beside it. Many churches and houses of worship, including the monasteries fell foul of his destructive influence. And the Porta Nigra was converted back to its original Roman form, although the apse was retained.

Apparently on the 22^nd of July 1817 the Prussian Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm  (1V) entered the city through the Roman gate and consequently the Prussian state took on the responsibility for its conservation. During the middle ages all the other stone gates were dismantled and the material used elsewhere. On the Porta Nigra the iron and lead braces were taken out for reuse. Traces of this destruction are still visible on the north side of gate. Air pollution, mainly from the exhaust fumes of passing cars continues to darken its stones.

Today numerous schools visit the Porta Nigra, the students made visible due to the smartness of their school uniforms.

THE AMPHITHEATRE  (NUMBER 5 ON THR MAP)

The amphitheatre is situated on the eastern edge of the Roman city, and was integrated into the city wall. It formed the end of a monumental boulevard which began at the Roman Bridge and continued along the Barbara Baths, the Forum and the Imperial Baths. It enclosed an area of approximately of 120 x 140 metres, so this structure is among one of the largest arenas  known.  The visiting spectators reached the terraces via two main entrances, while participants in the games find their way into the area directly through a gate. Gladiators and any animals wait their turn in chambers in the arena walls or are carried from the cellar into the arena by a lift.          

                                          

This public arena of entertainment could seat approximately up to 20,000 spectators. This amphitheatre is fundamentally an earthwork, as it is sunk partly into the western slope of the Petrisberg. On the opposite side the earth was heaped up and then assembled to the required height. The seating was of stone and consequently was used as a quarry by the Cistercian monks of Himmerod Abbey during the middle ages. The Abbey was dissolved in October 2017 but was then retrieved in June 2020. Today the Abbey has a café, an art and book shop, a plant nursery and a museum. Its fishery remains in operation as it is now leased out.

Seemingly, for the present, the amphitheatre is used regularly for various cultural events.

THE ELECTORAL PALACE   THE SOUTH FACADE

For many generations the Basilika was the residence for the Trier Archbishops, until a gentleman by the name Lothar von Metternich (1599-1623) decided to demolish some Roman structures and replace them with a monumental building comprising of four wings. Lothar von Metternich was born into an old German noble family. Apparently he was a very well educated and was fluent in Flemish, Italian, French and Latin. He oversaw the building of this massive and significant edifice which would eventually contain some extraordinary interior architecture. During World War II only two wings of the Renaissance building had survived, and they were reduced to just fragments. Although after the war, the flamboyant rococo staircase inside the south wing was restored. The stucco on the walls of the staircase were added around 1906, as the originals had been lost.

The exterior of the building is Renaissance architecture. While inside it regularly hosts classical music concerts and is the home of various offices of the federal government.

During the early part of the 20^th century the former palace gardens have been open to the public, and features statues sculpted by Ferdinand Tietz.

THE ROMAN BRIDGE WITH ITS STONE PILLARS

THE HISTORY OF THE ROMAN BRIDGE, NUMBER 11 ON THE MAP

In the past dredging of the Mosel, revealed, and embedded in the riverbed, archaeologists stumbled upon evidence for a bridge across the Mosel between Stadtbredimus and Palzem constructed during the 2nd century BC. Some of the timbers when examined could be distinguished from the later Roman Bridge, were felled in 168 and 149 BC. This bridge gave access from the south and west for traffic bound for the Hunsruck and the area around the vicinity of Trier.

The Roman Bridge in Trier is the oldest standing bridge in Germany. The nine bridge pillars date from the 2nd century AD and replace the two older wooden bridges.

The colonial title to Trier is possibly attributed to the Emperor Claudius (41-54) AD, with Britain now part of the Roman Empire a good system of roads between the Rhine frontier and ports on the English channel were needed.

Perhaps under the Emperor Hadrian (117-138) AD, there may have been an upgrade of the Provincial buildings, for apparently many of the streets were re-surfaced about this time. Also it has been realised, through excavations, that second bridge over the Mosel replaced the first during the beginning of the 2^nd century. The new bridge had nine piers which now support the modern superstructure. Two are now embedded in the eastern riverbank. Seemingly all were pointed at the end which faces up-stream and rounded at the other end. They are solidly built stone foundations and all rest directly on the excavated bed-rock. Six are constructed from massive basalt lava blocks. The others are of stone. The whole structure was bound together by iron clamps set in lead. During recent excavations an investigation discovered that wooden caissons surrounded the piers, so to exclude water at the time of their construction. Also some water-proof clay was recognised.

THE PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY FOR TRIER

In pre roman times the local inhabitants gathered their water from wells, rivers, streams and springs. But during the 2^nd century they were introduced to Roman technology by the building of aqueducts. The largest aqueduct was apparently the one in the Ruwer valley, starting near the main reservoir of modern Trier. The river Ruwer is a tributary of the Mosel. The aqueduct was seemingly almost 13km long with a gradient of o.o6%. Its cross-section was 0,74x1,30m. The outer walls were 0.96 – 1.30m high and 0.74-78m wide. The arched masonry channel was constructed of crushed stone and was plastered with a watertight lime mortar. This aqueduct is displayed at only a few locations.

No doubt there were numerous aqueducts that supplied Trier.  Isolated observations suggest that there was one running down the Olewiger valley and others from Mariahof which is above Heligkreuz. Possibly, the ROMAN CIRCUS (NUMBER 4 ON THE MAP) built for public entertainment and capable of accommodating many thousands of spectators, was supplied water via an aqueduct to this hippodrome. This ancient site was mammoth, about 450 m long and was renovated around 293 AD when the Emperor Constant Chlorus   came to live in Trier. If the monument was connected to the aqueduct it could have supplied water to fountains that were perhaps on the spina. Also on private land the springs may have been utilised by the use of pipes made of terracotta, stone, wood and lead.

Today there is nothing to be seen of the circus as houses have now engulfed this ancient monument.

 

THE KAISERTHERMEN/IMPERIAL BATHS (NUMBER 7 ON THE MAP)

Figure 2 (with thanks to RHEINLANDPFALZ) orientation map

Houses were demolished, the ground was levelled and an area 260 by 145 m (825x 480 ft) was got ready, towards the end of the 3^rd century, to accommodate planned extensions of the imperial residence. Unfortunately these new planned buildings were never finished.

This prestigious bath complex was begun shortly before 300AD by Constantius Chlorus but construction ceased around 316AD with the baths still incomplete. The baths were divided into two parts, the bath complex and the exercise ground known as the palaestra which measured 160 x 130 meters.

Interestingly in the north- west corner of the imperial baths some Late la Tene pottery was excavated. Some pieces may have been decorated with painted floral and animal motifs. Close by a pit of Claudian date was discovered with stone built cellars belonging to the later 1^st century houses.  Apparently one of these had been altered as its original entrance was walled up and a new one was constructed. But, beside the blocked entrance four small pots with lids had been buried upside down. Perhaps this position suggests that they were offerings for the deities of the underworld, so to appease the spirt of some deceased and much loved member of the household.

Foundation trenches were discovered filled with limestone rubble and then dressed with roughly shaped limestone blocks. Also bonding courses built of tiles were recognised with only 2 or 3 courses of stone between them, and this would have helped strengthen the walls. Other building materials were fireproof terracotta bricks, granite and marble.

The 3 main rooms, frigidarium, tepidarium and caldarium were built one behind the other and were all were linked by vestibules. All these were constructed in a semi- circular fashion and other rooms would have been dressing rooms and latrines.

                                                    CONSTANTINE 1 (AD 306 –AD 337)                

In all probability it was during the reign of this Emperor, who was also known as Constantine the Great, that work was abandon at the Imperial baths. After Constantine emerged victorious in the civil wars against the emperors Maxentius and Licinius, he became the sole ruler of the Roman Empire in 324 AD. Constantine chose Byzantium, later to be recognised as Constantinople which became the new capital of the Roman Empire. This city had a natural harbour and was a thriving port and had a prime geographical location between Europe and Asia. Much grain and silk were traded here. Also it should be remembered that Constantine became the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity.

 

After Constantine stopped funding the Imperial baths in Trier they fell into disrepair and were neglected. They were used as part of the city wall then a castle and perhaps a monastery. Seemingly the external walls of the Imperial baths were plastered in an indulgent fashion and was a restricted entry, as all of the buildings connected with the court lie in the area of the town stretching northwards so to form a palatial enclave.

                                           RECENT ARCHAEOLOGIAL EXCAVATIONS IN TRIER

Surprisingly the excavations of the Kaiserthermen also known as the Imperial baths, revealed two massive foundation blocks marking the monumental gate that was planned as an entrance hall but was never finished. Also noticed were a number of foundation blocks of Roman concrete.

During 1993 about 2650 gold coins were excavated, while the earliest coins were minted in 63AD, during the reign of the emperor Nero. The latest were found with the emperor Septimius  Severus  depicted on them about 196 AD. Perhaps they were buried because of the on- going 196AD civil war.

                                     THE BARBARHERMEN BATHS (NUMBER 12 0N THE MAP)

During the life-time of these baths they would have been elaborately decorated and a marble torso of an Amazon warrior was discovered. This is now in the Landesmuseum in Mainz. Perhaps it is a copy of a Greek original. Slightly out of sight and in crevices and recesses possibly were more marble sculptures. Perhaps depicting Greek and Roman Gods, like Minerva Goddess of wisdom, Neptune God of fresh water and Poseidon with his awesome trident.

This complex probably went out of use during the early part of the 5^th century when Trier was sacked by the Franks. The Huns under Attila in 451 AD also sacked the City. Trier became part of Frankish territory during 485 AD, and its population decreased drastically during this period of instability.

These baths derives its name from the local church dedicated to St Barbara. Sadly today only a smallish area is preserved above foundation level. But in the early part of the 17^th century a small area survived as a home for a noble family. These baths perhaps were built in the second half of the 2^nd century and cover an area of 42 thousand square meters with water supplied from the Ruwer aqueduct. The Barbarathermen baths water for the thermae was heated in a metal boiler which was as high as a house, and the temperature could be controlled by adding cold water.

In the past archaeologists have enthralled me by their discoveries. They include a water tank large enough to be connected to the public water supply. This probably belongs to the middle of the 3^rd century and was constructed by using large stone blocks which were smeared inside with a layer of water tight clay. Beneath these were a series of wooden trenches, apparently for the catching unwanted sediment.

THE CATHEDRAL (NUMBER 2 ON THE MAP)

Trier cathedral, formally the high Cathedral of St Peter is in the religion of the Roman Catholic and its most famous relic is the Holy Robe, the tunic of Christ. This robe was last shown in 2012. The skull of Helena, the Mother of the Emperor Constantine is seen in the east crypt, and her drinking is kept in the cathedral’s treasury. Also there is a view of the so- called portable altar of Saint Andrew, the twelfth Bishop of Trier. He was also one of the first apostles of Jesus.

The cathedral has a rich history spanning around 1700 years. Its roots trace back to the 4^th century, when it was built upon the foundations of a Roman building, which included the Palace of Saint Helena. The cathedral was the victim of invading armies, the Franks and the Vikings, but was rebuilt and expanded in each era.

In reality Trier itself was founded in the late 1^st century BC and carried the name Augusta Treverorum and for 500 years and was the favoured residence of many Roman emperors. In all probability there was a diminutive Christian community in Trier during the latter part of the 2^nd century, although more evidence relating to Trier belongs to the next century where it can be checked and verified. It begins with three named bishops, Eucharius, Maternus and Valerius. These names are followed by Agricius, the first historically documented bishop of Trier serving in the 4^th century. Apparently he was a priest of Antioch before being appointed to the See of Trier. He was present at the council of Arles in 314 and was connected with Helena the mother of Constantine. The Christian community in Trier was expanding and had reached dimensions relevant enough for the appointment of a Bishop in the closing years of the 3^rd century. Seemingly heavenly treasures were coming more important and significant than ever before. The growth of the Christian faith within Trier was not admired by many of its residents as Congregations still carried a profound respect and admiration and reverence for non-Christian religions. Many focused on honouring the divine within nature and celebrating the interconnectedness of all things. They worshiped numerous gods and goddesses and held seasonal festivals, rituals and had a deep respect for Mother Earth.

Trier cathedral was dedicated to Saint Peter and incorporated remnants of a Roman Imperial palace and bath house including sections of the original walls of the Aula Palatina and the imperial thermae. This early Christian structure is thought to have been built between AD 300 and AD310. This lavishly designed residential palace was demolished around AD335 when the Christian church complex was expanded. Much of the Cathedral was built of Kordel sandstone which originated very close to Trier near the town of Kordel. This was very convenient for rebuilding, as allied bombing raids in December 1944 caused damage to the cathedral. The cloisters roof and vaults of the healing chapel and the roofs of the west tower were destroyed. During 1950 the bomb damage to the cathedral was repaired and the expansion of the interior was completed.

 

 A MAJOR DISCOVERY

WITH THANKS TO SELBSTVERLAG DES BISHCHOFLICHEN MUSEUMS TRIER,

FOR THE GROUND PLAN OF THE CATHEDRAL.

Cupids with a censer bowl. Philosopher with a scroll

During the years of 1945/46 and 1967/68 at a depth of over 3 meters an extraordinary discovery was excavated. Many thousands of fragments of a dropped down plaster ceiling were found and recovered. During the first excavation nearly half of the ceiling paintings were recovered and six  sections were to be assembled. It was Dr Theodork Kempf who recognized the significance of these finds and during 1967/68 the southern half was excavated and the rest of the of the paintings were discovered.

The puzzle work continued and together with the restorer P. Welter the first 6 paintings were shown to the public in 1951.The ceiling  murals are on display in a dedicated room in the Cathedral Museum since 1988 but for conservation purposes  the murals are mounted on walls and not the ceiling.  In 1993 they can now be seen in the museum. All are presented with the colours of red green and yellow and each offer female and male busts. Some are seen with halos, circles of light, either symbolic or atmospheric but very radiant and luminous. Others contain unique pairs of playful putti, and there are 15 different portraits. It is worth buying the museum hand book as Theodork Kemp gives his own interpretation off the ceiling.

Another area close by and stimulates our imagination is the Horrea, a warehouse, number 3 on the map. It was strategically placed to facilitate efficient up loading and storage of goods arriving by ship on the Moselle river. It is located near the ancient harbour within the city walls on the north western side. These structures were built around 333AD and were likely used as granaries and possibly as a military store house. It may have been two stories high but as yet no trace of a stair case has been found. The complex featured two large halls 19 meters wide separated by a12 meters wide courtyard. The walls were reinforced with pilasters and blind arcades which were a decorative feature.

The building was later used as Benedictine abbey, but is now one of oldest wine cellars in Germany. It was built using limestone and remnants of Roman walls and brick flooring are still visible. I recommend a visit to the Rheinisches landesmuseum to view the stunning collection of mosaics, which are all related to Trier.

 Woman with a nimbus. Dancing cupids with a bowl.

British Monasteries: Their rise and fall

THE BOOK OF KELLS ( ABBEY OF KEELS )

           

                                                            THE INSPIRATION                                                   

THE BOOK OF KELLS

The temptation of Christ, his 40 days and 40 nights in the Judaean desert is, in all probability, the seed that led to individual hermits imitating this life of isolation. The ideology being that if one could stay free of the temptation of sensual pleasures, and with a secluded prayer-focused life, they would be nourished by a deeper level of satisfaction and fulfilment leading eventually to a blissful union with God, in Heaven. The early Christian hermits seemed to have heeded the words of Jesus who had said, "if you want to be perfect, go,and sell what you have and give it to the poor, and you will have treasures in Heaven, and come, follow me" These inspirational hermits, originally living in desert caves, excited the minds of numerous men and women and, during the course of time, many of these follows began to be organised into small communities.

It is probable that many of the Christian hermits did indeed, live their whole lives in solitude, striving in their own unique way to grow closer to God. They could have been sustained by gifts of food supplied by the generosity of curious visitors. Other hermits seemed to have become more like the disciples of Jesus and, through their teaching and personal charisma, a few became known as 'the fathers and founders of desert monasticism'.

Archaeology seems to suggest that in the desert of Jordan, on the plain to the east and south of Jericho, these early Christian desert dwellers constructed their own shelters, which were to be known as "cells" The concentration of clay in the local sediments formed hard layers that are evident in the landscape. These 'steps' prevent drift and this allowed the hermits to quarry the local stone from the natural layers of gypsum to construct their cells. The walls were bound together using a locally made mortar. The ceilings would have been constructed with the use of wood beams topped with rush mats coated with a chalky lime. The window frames and doors were strengthened by using the branches of poplar and tamarisk.

                                                           MONKS AND NUNS

The male hermits eventually became known as monks. The word 'monk' seems to have come from the ancient Greek and can be translated as meaning 'solitary'. In Greek the word relates to both men and women. Women hermits were also present in the desert as they looked to dedicate their lives to emulating Jesus Christ. These women tended to be virgins or widows and called themselves 'spouses of Christ' or 'brides of Christ'. Their veils symbolised their marriage to Jesus and today we know them as nuns. It is possible that the word 'nun' is from the latin 'nonna,' which is a term of endearment for a grandmother.

The early Christian monks would have adjusted to this austere way of life by becoming self-reliant. They would have survived by consuming dates, chicory leaves, desert herbs vegetables and water. By making ropes and baskets from palm leaves, it was possible that these were exchanged for bread from visitors. As the years tumbled away many more inquisitive human souls strode forth into the desert , searching for spiritual enlightenment and counsel from the desert fathers so they could pursue a path to everlasting life. Certain personalities of these fathers began to carve their names forever in the annuls of early Christian history.

                                                     THE EARLY SAINTS

From within this saturation of Christianity, arguably, three men led the way forward for the future of the desert hermits. All three eventually would be known as saints.

 Saint Anthony (b.271-d.356) was born at Koma, near Herakleopolis Magna in Lower Egypt, was possibly the inspiration, through his Christian teaching, for the minds of the hermits living the austere life in the desert. He did not organise or create a monastery, but a community grew around him based upon his example of living an ascetic and isolated life in search of spiritual enlightenment. 

Another saint, Pachomius (b.292-d.348) from Thebes, was converted to Christianity and baptised in the year 314, seems to have been responsible for organising both male and female Christian hermits into a formal organisation. His first monastery was established at Tabennisi, around the year 318, and sometime later another at Pabau. For forty years Pachomius was abbot to the Cenobites, and by the time of his death eight monasteries followed his guidance. 

The third saint, Amun (b.294-d.357) was born at Mariotis, in Egypt. He was responsible, in the Nitrian desert, for organising a semi-hermitic lifestyle where small groups of monks and nuns, with a common spiritual elder, joined together to worship on Saturdays and Sundays.

                                            THE CHRISTIAN COMMUNITIES

Many Christian communities survived the Diocletianic  Persecution (303-311) as issued by the four Roman emperors of that era which included Diocletian, Constantius, Galerius and Maximian. Their edicts rescinded the legal rights of Christians, including the clergy, which ordered all to sacrifice to the Roman Gods.

But in 306 the Roman emperor Constantine the Great began a transition that would be responsible for Christianity becoming the dominant religion of the Roman Empire. Although Constantine himself, it seems, was not baptised until shortly before his death.

 Consequently the flow of Christian disciples ebbed forward into the wilderness and the shadows of Syria, North Africa and then into Western Europe.

The first reference to a monastery in Spain was, apparently, in a letter from St. Augustine of Hippo (b.354-d.430) to the abbot of the monastery at Cabrera, an island located in the Mediterranean off the southern coast of Majorca written in 398. Another saint, John Cassian (b.360-d.435) and possibly born in Dobruja, a region shared today by Bulgaria and Romania was responsible, around 415, for encouraging monastic life both for men and women in Marseille, on the Mediterranean coast of France.

Closer to England and protruding defiantly, in solitude and isolation, from within the pounding Atlantic Ocean, sits a small island, composed of Devonian sandstone, now known as Skellig Michael. This island is 12 kilometres south west of Valentia island in the County of Kerry, in Ireland. Skellig Michael has one of the best preserved early monasteries in Europe. It is constructed nearly 200 metres above sea level and faces southward, which helps to shelter it from the cold penetrating winds. The monastery has the remains of two boat-shaped oratories and six corbelled 'bee-hive' huts. Approximately 600 steps originally led up to the monastery. The 'bee-hives' were round on the outside with slates slanting downwards to keep out the rain. Inside 'bee-hives' were rectangular walls, curving inward, to form a corbelled roof. Sleeping platforms/shelves were built into the walls.

The community harvested water from the wells on site and would have survived on a diet of fish, roasted sea-birds and bird's eggs and perhaps even vegetables grown on sheltered terraces. From the monastery's cemetery some of the skeletal remains have been analysed. Some were of children and their remains indicate that to earn their keep they were used as 'beasts of burden'. Most of the monastery's hermit lives on earth seem to end when they were aged between 20 or 30 years old. One individual survived at least until his 50th year.

It has been suggested that this 6th century monastery was founded by Saint Fionan/Finnian (b. 470-d. 549) who was one of the early Irish saints and, therefore, one of the fathers of Irish monasticism. It is recorded that the monastery was eventually abandoned to the elements during the 13th century when the monks retreated to the monastery at Ballinskelligs. In later years the Skellig Michael became a place of pilgrimage.

I have not yet visited this historic early monastery but I feel, that when I do, I shall be surrounded and embraced by a unique atmosphere which has travelled over space and time, from the deserts of Jordan and Egypt and has been replicated here on this isolated island. ( Pictures of this island can be view via the internet).

                                                 MAINLAND OF IRELAND

On the mainland of Ireland there evolves a complication of how to seek a higher spiritual life by abandoning the world, for here there were 'landowners' who were the Celtic tribes, submissive to their tribal kings. Possibly all the tribes/clans were pagans, as the Romans never conquered Ireland.

It seems that the earliest monasteries in Ireland were small settlements where Anchorites lived permanently as individuals or in small groups. They lived in beehive-shaped cells, constructed of un-mortared slaps of stone. Nearby would have been a number of oratories. These simple oratories were constructed of oak and thatched with reeds. They would have been used separately by monks and nuns.

Irish history is vague concerning this early Christian period, although it is believed by some historians that Dathi was the last pagan king of Ireland. He could have reigned from 404 until 427. Whether he was a king of kings or just a local territorial king is unclear. Around 427 a king named Laeghaire, probably became the first Christian king of Ireland, converted by St Patrick? During 431 Pope Caelestinus the First, sent a bishop by the name of Palladius to encourage the Christian faith.

As Christianity was absorbed by more and more pagans the local royal families would have felt the need to organise control of these early expanding monasteries. This control was initially embraced by the island's Druids who were the Celtic priests/ministers. The Celtic peoples entrusted to the Druids ritual leadership, theology, philosophy and their system of law. Mostly the Druids were related to the High Chieftains/Kings. These Druids believed in immortality and therefore would have accepted Christianity as a valid form of worship. Through the influence of the Druids, many sacred pagan places were retained as Christian sites. Pagan temples became Celtic churches which were built on pagan places of worship, therefore items of tribute were perhaps accumulated in the church rather than being deposited, and even lost forever, within sacred lakes. (To the Celts the land was a living being). There are still places where the remnants of pagan tradition can be seen in the context of Celtic Christianity. These are high crosses of which some still remain. ( Some can be viewed via the internet ). The later monks within the monasteries would also be the siblings of the royal families. These monks would have been granted land on which to build monasteries so, consequently, the monasteries were entwined financially and politically with the ruling dynasties.

Ireland, in this early Christian period, was a country in transition, from a nature-based Celtic religious system to a monastic, Christian one. During this period a number of Christian disciples emerged, some having a significant impact in encouraging the local inhabitants to believe that their spiritual health was in need of enlightenment and development which could lead, eventually, to an everlasting life in Heaven. some of the more documented missionaries became revered as saints.

                                                      THE LATER SAINTS

Saint Patrick is perhaps the most well-known Irish saint and the 17th of March is celebrated as St Patrick's Day. He was a Romano-British Christian missionary, known as the " Apostle of Ireland" It seems that Patrick, when a youth, was snatched away from his home in England by Irish pirates to serve as a slave in Ireland. When he was about 22 years old he escaped, became a cleric and by the 7th century was recognised as the Patron Saint of Ireland. Perhaps those years when he was held in captivity were the platform for stimulating his spiritual development. On his return to Ireland around 432, he became an active missionary and is generally credited as being the first Bishop of Armagh. Un fortunately, the dates of his life cannot be fixed with certainty, although it has been suggested that he may have died around 461. There is a statue of him at Saul, county down, and a white oratory at the top of Croagh Patrick, County Mayo.( This can be view on the internet ).

Another charismatic, historical character of Celtic Christianity was St Columba ( St Colmcille ), he was born in 521 at Gartan,  County Donegal and died in 597 at Lona. He was responsible for the founding of the monasteries at Durrow and Derry. He was recognised as the Patron Saint of Derry, where his monastery was founded in 540. Interestingly, it appears that the Catholic church of St Columba's Long Tower stands upon the spot of this original settlement. In 563 the current of life sweeps Columba and a number of companions from mainland Ireland to the white beaches of the Island of Iona, where Columba founded a monastery. This being a small island in the Inner Hebrides, off  Ross of Mull, on the western coast of Scotland. The Inner Hebrides was part of the Gaelic kingdom of Dalriada, as the ruling family if the Irish Dalriada had crossed into Scottish Dalriada sometime during the 5th century and consequently, Dunadd and Dunolly/Dunollie  became their main strongholds.

 St Columba was of royal descent from an Irish king in the 5th century, Niall of the Nine Hostages, although it is unclear whether Columba was banished politically into exile or just went as a Celtic Christian missionary. St Columba and his fellow missionaries inaugurated Christianity around the area of Argyll and Bute. The influential St Columba, in 574, helped raise Aedan to the kingship of the Scottish Dalriada.

It seems then, that the Celtic church was essentially a missionary church and monastic in its organisation. Many communicable Christian disciples established, during the 6th century, numerous oratories ( chapels ), not only in Ireland but in Scotland, Gaul, Wales, Cornwall and in the north of England, where the monk Aidan of Iona preached with vigour between the Forth and the Humber. St Aidan was to become recognised as 'the apostle of Northumbria'.

The monastery at Lindisfarne/Holy Island, was the original headquarters/ Mother church, of the Celtic Christians in the north, here a see was attached, and at the request of the Northumbrian king Oswald, Aidan became their first bishop and he was consecrated in the year 635.

                                                  THE CHRISTIAN WOMEN

Within this time zone women were also proactive in their missionary ambitions and, arguably, two names still glow brightly within the recorded history of monasticism in Ireland and in County Durham, North East England. St Brigid, born about 451 at Faughat, in County Louth, and died in 523 in Kildare, Ireland, was one of  Ireland's patron saints. It seems that the king of Leinster, around 470-480, donated land to St Brigid upon which she founded a double monastery at Kildare,which housed both men and women. Brigid presided over both communities. These establishments of double monasteries, were not looked upon with favour by the Roman church.

St Hilda was another early Irish Celtic Christian nun who was from royal lineage. It is recorded that her elder sister, Hereswith, married Aethelhere the king of East Anglia. She also became a saint and died in France in 647. Bede tells us that Hilda was born in 614 and in 657 she became the founding Abbess of the new monastery at Whitby, North Yorkshire, it was then known as Streonshalh. She remained there until her death in 680. The main source of information about St Hilda is to be found in the 'Ecclesiastical History of the English' by the Venerable Bede, written in 731.

                        THE 'IONAN' AND THE 'ROMAN EASTER TRADITIONS'

Bede, who died at the monastery at Jarrow in 735, also tells us about the Synod of Whitby in 664, which was  held at Hilda's double monastery at Streonshalh ( now known as Whitby). It was presided over by King Oswiu of Northumbria. This Synod was to debate the two differing liturgical traditions regarding the celebration of Easter by the Celtic and Roman Christians.

This thorn of disharmony had been penetrating Christianity for some period of time. History tells us that the 6th century Irish missionary St Columban ( b 540  d 615 in Italy ), who founded a monastery at Luxeuil in France, was criticized in 603 by a synod of French bishops for keeping Easter to the Celtic rather than the Roman ceremonial observance.

The Synod of Whitby had been instigated by the Northumbrian royal family as there had grown a visible disunity within their court. While one royal faction was celebrating Easter, the other would still be fasting during lent. The king had been converted through the ministry of Aidan, Celtic traditions and calendar, while his queen Enfleda followed the teaching of Paulinus who was connected with Augustine's Roman mission.

The Ionan  calculation of Easter was argued by Colman, then the Bishop of Northumbria, and the Roman practice was presented by Wilfrid. King Oswiu  presided over the synod and acted as the final judge, and would then give his royal authority in support of his final decision.

It transpires that after listening to much discussion, the king puts before the gathering a pivotal question: do both parties agree that Christ had given the 'keys to the kingdom of heaven' to Peter and pronounced that he would be "the rock" on which his church would be built? Both parties agreed. Consequently, the king bestowed his favour upon the Roman practice, and therefore the Northumbrian church entered into the mainstream of Roman culture.

 Consequently Colman and his supporters who did not wish to change their practices withdraw to Iona and the monk Cuthbert, later to be known as St Cuthbert, takes control of the monastery at Linisfarne where he tries to implement to the monks, The Rule of St Benedict.

 In time the episcopal seat of Northumbria is transferred from Lindisfarne to York as Colman resigns and the future Bishop in time would be Wilfrid. ( How the Celtic/Roman Christians calculated their differing dates for Easter can be studied in more detail on the internet ).

                                                THE LATER MISSIONARIES

In the later part of the 6th century as the Celtic missionaries begin to expand into continental Europe, Pope Gregory the Great, in Rome, cast's his eyes towards the pagan Anglo-Saxon kingdom in the south of England.

 This Pope on the death of his father began to convert the family villa into a working monastery and such was his dedication to Christianity that he summoned a prior by the name of Augustine in 595, to lead a mission of monks to south east England, where they were apparently greeted, on their arrival, by the then pagan king, Aethelberht.  

This was a wise choice by the Pope as Aethelberht, although a pagan, had married Bertha a Frankish  princess in 580 on condition that she still be allowed to practice her Christian religion. Consequently a former Roman church was restored for her to be used as her private chapel. This church was dedicated to Saint Martin of Tours and the present St Martin's church continues on the same site, therefore Christian worship has taken place here since 580 A.D.

King Aethelberht, as well as converting to Christianity, grants land to the missionaries and outside the then city walls of Canterbury the monastery of SS. Peter and Paul is founded. During the course of time both Augustine and Bertha are consecrated as saints.

While Canterbury is established as the primatial see of England, Augustine engages with a congregation of Welsh bishops as he tries to unify the British ( Celtic ) churches of North Wales and the churches he is founding in Kent. His efforts fail. And it is more than 150 years on ( 768 A D ) that they conform to the Roman Easter. But, he is successful in establishing the episcopal sees of London (  East Saxon ) and of Rochester.


                               THE ORIGINS OF THE RULE OF ST BENEDICT

It seems that Benedict as a former hermit, became aware of the difficulties and spiritual dangers of living a life of solitude. His rule helped to guide the monks that were living within a community.

There was nothing austere or exacting within it, for it just encouraged the spirit of moderation and
reasonableness. The monks day was to be a balance of prayer, work, study and when required the education of the local boys.

The monasteries should be self sufficient and self contained so there would be no reason for the monks to venture outside its boundaries.

St Benedict himself was an Italian monk and he preached in the area of Cassino, which is between Rome and Naples. He was supported by his sister Scholastica, who was to become the head of a nunnery, while Benedict, in 529 founded a monastery at Monte Cassino.

Seemingly as monachism was derived from Ireland and Rome, these two independent Christian sources would developed certain customs and traditions insular to themselves. It was not just the dating of Easter that held back their unification as there where issues regarding baptism, the consecration of churches and bishops, the tonsure and the liturgy. Also many of the Celtic monasteries engaged both monks and nuns and were presided over by an abbess. All of these would not be resolved for many more generations to come.

                                                  THE QUEST CONTINUES

During the later part of the 7th century two aristocratic clerics engrave their names within the history of monachism in England. They are to become known as St. Benidict Biscop,  and St. Wilfrid.

St Wilfrid ( b 633 d 710 ) was, it seems, a controversial character but he's resilient and buoyant and a committed  missionary. He is responsible for founding Selsey Abbey ( 681 ) on land granted to him by Aethelwealh, king of the South Saxons. The see was moved to Chichester in 1075 and its possible that the original abbey was on the site of the old parish church of Church Norton.

He was educated at Lindisfarne and studied in Canterbury, in Gaul and Rome, and had quarrels with various secular figures including the Archbishop of Canterbury, St Theodore of Tarus. None the less he founded the monasteries at Ripon ( 658 ) and at Hexham ( 674 ). Uniquely, both were eventually to be built using stone, erected by stonemasons and glaziers from the continent. Monasteries were to be the first stone buildings in England since the Romans.


St Benidict Biscop ( b 628 d 690 ) was a contemporary of St Wilfrid and they had travelled together to Rome, and during his life, the then Archbishop of Canterbury, St Theodore appointed Biscop as the Abbot of the local monastery SS Peter and Paul's. This would have been around 669.

The then king of Northumberland, Ecgfrith, was sympathetic towards Biscop and granted him much land upon which to build, and in due course Biscop founded a 'double house' abbey. Built first was St Peter's at Monkwearmouth in 674. This was followed with the founding of St Paul's at Jarrow in 684.
Both were to be built using stone in the Pre-Romanesque style by skilled workmen from abroad. This abbey was to become a centre of Anglo-Saxon learning (Bede).

Part of this monastery, known as Monkwearmouth-Jarrow, held a scriptorium. Its most revered work was producing a copy of the Codex Amiatinus, a volume containing the whole of the bible. It was a Latin Vulgate (common ) 5th century version which was to become a gift for Pope Gregory 11 in 716.

Biscop was also responsible for encouraging the development of a small library at Jarrow, for many of the books that he had collected on his travels found a home here. Seemingly most would have been secular works, scriptures and books of a classical nature.

THE LINDISFARNE CHI-RHO ( EADFRITH CC )

It seems then, as the years had tumbled by and evaporated into the heaven of the unremembered past, many monasteries had become part of the 'silk-road' of religious culture, which was supplemented by their art work.

It came to pass that numerous monasteries were, and had been producing magnificent illuminated manuscripts, of which some held interlaced decoration. Some have survived to the present day and arguably the most famous is the Lindisfarne Gospels which is now housed in the British Library. It was produced to honour God and St Cuthbert and instigated by Eadfrith the Bishop of Lindisfarne, until his death in 721. The manuscript relays, in 250 leaves, which are in latin the story of the four Gospels.

LINDISFARNE GOSPELS ( BRITISH MUSEUM )

In the library of Trinity College in Dublin is the Book of Durrow. This work includes the Gospels of the four saints, Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. and was possibly written in the mid 5th century. It is written in insular script which was developed in Ireland and then spread by the monks into Anglo-Saxon England and then on to the continent.

BOOK OF DURROW ( TRINITY COLLEGE )

Another 'eye catching' and stunning manuscript is the Book of Kells, perhaps composed by the monks within the monastery on the island of Iona around the later part of the 8th century. This 'bible' is graced with the four Gospels of the New Testament. It is a work of extravagance and complexity. Celtic knots in interlacing patterns are seen, as are figures of humans, animals and mythical beasts, and all are adorned in vibrant colours. In all there are 680 pages ( 340 leaves ) and it resides at Trinity College in Dublin.

THE BOOK OF KELLS

Well then... from the austere unostentatious and unsophisticated world of worship, Christianity was under-going a metamorphosis of a varied transformation, until that is, of the unexpected arrival of the long-haired and murderous pagans.

                                                         THE VIKINGS

Sometime on the 8th of June in 793, the doors of the Mother church at Lindisfarne burst open, and for the monks inside it was apocalyptic and terrifying. Many were murdered and perhaps the younger and fitter looking monks were enslaved.

The Viking attacks on Christian churches and monasteries were easy targets for plunder, as they were undefended and many held much wealth. These brutal pursuits were just for monetary gain and had no religious agender. 

The abbey on Iona was subject to numerous barbaric raids over the next three decades, and after a most murderous attack during 806 many monks relocated to the abbey of Kells in Ireland. This site was about 40 miles north of Dublin, and was consecrated in 814, but sadly this abbey too was eventually soiled by the Vikings.

During 875, and due to the sporadic raids by the pagans, Eardwulf the then bishop of the Mother church at Lindisfarne, relocates with his congregation of monks to Cumbria, where Guthred the Danish king of York, grants land to this incoming community of St Cuthbert. Upon this land, at Chester-Le-Street a new church is built and it is here that St Cuthbert's body is interred. In all probability in time this was to become the site for the magnificent Durham cathedral.

The two important houses of Wearmouth and Jarrow were pillaged and its precious library destroyed and during the 9th century the abbey was abandoned to the elements. 

The Anglo-Saxon 7th century double monastery at Repton in Derbyshire, was also  abandoned in 873 when the 'Great Heathen Army' fell upon it. This army had landed in East Anglia in 865 and were determined to tear- apart Anglo- Saxon England. They were a coalition of Norse warriors from Denmark, Norway and Sweden, formed to occupy and conquer all of the Anglo-Saxon provinces.

London, York, Hexham, Whitby, all fell by the wayside and their cultural life and political unity was suffocated by the avalanche of pagan violence.

All but a few of the Anglo-Saxon buildings in the 7th/8th centuries were constructed using degradable materials, so those that were not destroyed by the invaders, just crumbled and disintegrated and were forgotten.

                                                       THE RESURRECTION

During second half of the 10th century the Phoenix of monachism begins to arise from its ashes and, with passion and belief the resurrection begins, fuelled with the will of the then king, affectionately known as Edgar the Peaceful ( b 943 d 975 ) who reigned from 959 until his death, as he looks to restore the spiritual guardship of the nation. The king is supported in his quest by the following three prominent individuals.

St Dunston ( b 909 d 988 ) the Archbishop of Canterbury, a noble by birth, and counsellor to the king, was the person responsible for reorganising the monastic way of life in England. He was assisted by Ethelwold, Bishop of Winchester, and Bishop Oswald of Worcester. Because of their combined efforts a number of important religious houses were founded or re-established. Abingdon, Evesham, Pershore, Winchester and Worcester became outstanding centres of monastic resurrection.

All were required to adhere to the Rule of St Benedict which was written in 516 by the Italian abbot Benedict of Nursia. This was a fundamental but meaningful daily guide for individual and autonomous communities.

The disciples had spread the 'word' well and as the 10th century drew to a close over thirty monasteries and six nunneries bore the fruits of much labour, and these included Peterborough, Westminster and the two abbeys of Ely and Ramsey, both of which are situated in the Fens.

Many of the cathedrals also become monasteries as Anglo-Saxon aristocrats donate land and money to the monks, who would in return pray for the souls of their benefactors. This financial injection gave the monks a sense of power and prestige and a renewed perception of mission. Art is reawakened, scholarship is saved and music is revised. From just a single melody or chant the musical texture started to consist of two or more melodic voices. All of this rippled out across southern and central England during the 10th and 11th centuries as the monasteries became the religious, cultural and intellectual power-houses of the middle ages.

Sadly and unfortunately there was a setback when the Danish king Sweyn Forkbeard, accompanied by his pagan hordes invaded England early in the 11th century. It is not clear how much damage was inflicted upon the religious houses at the time, but Canterbury was sacked and badly damaged, and its Archbishop Aelfheah was taken hostage. But, unsurprisingly when the ransom money was not forthcoming he was brutality murdered. 

After some years of turmoil Sweyn gained, in December 1013, the throne of England only to die five weeks later. He was succeeded by his son Cnut the Great. We recognize him today as King Canute.

This new king had embraced the Christian faith and then bestowed monetary benefactions to many religious houses. Unfortunately he died in 1035 and his illegitimate son Harold 1 seized the throne of England.
                                 
                                                  THE NORMANS ARRIVE

On the death of Edward The Confessor, king of England from 1042 until the 4th of January 1066 the English throne was again fought over. But on the 14th of October, in that same year, and after the Battle of Hastings, William Duke of Normandy ascended to the throne of England.

This new king when he became more secure and firmly established, swept away most of  the Anglo - Saxon land-owners, and being intelligent, astute and perceptive, passed their land to his Norman barons and nobles. And they in turn bestowed much land to the church for the founding of religious 
houses and money for the restoration of others, which included the abbey of St Peter at Westminster.

As this expansive activity progressed abbots and ecclesiastics cascade across the channel bringing with them their sacramental practices and traditions from the Benedictine abbeys of Normandy.

In consequence in1070, the then Saxon Archbishop of Canterbury, Stigand, is replaced by Lanfranc the former abbot of Saint-Etienne, Caen. To this man, the Conqueror entrusted the responsibility of re-organising the English church.

All Saxon abbots and their superiors are ejected but not without opposition in some houses, and perhaps just to add to the mayhem, communication would have been conducted in French.

Lanfranc also made a bold decision, in the late 11th century, to convert several of the secular cathedrals into cathedral-priories. This union of a cathedral and monastery was commissioned at Bath, Canterbury, Coventry, Durham, Norwich and Rochester and at all of these sees the head of the monastery was the prior. Although it is recorded that on several occasions the bishop and the prior did not see 'eye to eye'.

It must be remembered that the king was not the head of the church, although this did change during  the 16th century when Henry the 8th broke its religious ties with Rome, but at this moment in time the Pope was head of the world wide church. Therefore the church leaders of the Conqueror's rein were vital to the kings resources, which included the legal and religious life of the country.

Lanfranc set out the following hierarchy; the bishops area was called a Diocese and each of these had an  Archdeacon  to support the said bishop. The diocese were divided into regions known as Deaneries. All had a member of the clergy known as a Dean as its head, and it was his responsibility to make sure that religious laws were kept and that the priests conducted themselves in the rightly manner.  

                                NORMAN ARCHITECTURAL DEVELOPMENT

As well as the influx of clergy there was also a tsunami of architects, accompanied with their stonemasons who arrived on the shores of England. They were armed with many years of work experience gained while working in Normandy, and in various lands under their influence during the 11th and 12th centuries. Much would be built, not just castles but abbeys, churches, cathedrals and monasteries, and all would be built using stone.

Edward The Confessor had bought over, during 1042, stonemasons from Normandy to help build Westminster Abby in, what was then known, as the Romanesque style. These new arrivals would have initially built using the same technique, which was characterised by semi-circular arches with any decorative moulding, like zig-zag, confined only to a few small features. Most windows were small-scale and compact and held just a little stained glass. As the 12th century drew to a close this Romanesque form of architecture  was beginning to give way to the new Gothic design. Large pointed arches were the fashion with huge windows full of stunning and colourful stained glass, which also allowed more light to enter the building.

NORMAN ROMANESQUE ( WIKIPEDIA )

GOTHIC WINCHESTER  CATHEDRAL ( WIKIPEDIA )

 



The Normans had an significant influence on architectural development within Britian and used much Caen stone, as its pale colour contrasted well with the dark column shafts of Purbeck marble. This Caen stone, a limestone, was also used at Canterbury, Westminster Abbey, Tower of London and in the cathedral at Norwich.

During the late 12th century as the popularity of the Romanesque style began to fade, Canterbury cathedral in1174 was badly damaged by fire, and William of Sens a French master mason and architect was commissioned with the responsibility of the rebuild. And it was his work that introduced the arrival of the Early Gothic style to the cathedrals and religious houses of England. 

This man's innovating structural designs of the arch buttress and the six part ribbed vault were key features in supporting the roof. This also helped to spread the weight downwards and outwards to the columns below and to the outside buttresses. He also built high arcades in the choir with the walls between the structural elements thinner. This would have made room for a number of larger stained glass windows which would have filled the church with much welcome light.

On William of Sens untimely death in 1180, an English architect and stonemason, William the English continued with the rebuild.

CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL CHOIR ( SCHOOL HISTORY )

It is worth to remember that fourteen of the monasteries, after their Suppression, between 1536 and 1540, were 're-born' as cathedrals. And a prime example of this is St Peter's cathedral in Gloucestershire. Its cloister is dazzling, as the fan vaulting ceiling with its overhanging branches seem to shimmer in the sunlight. Within this cathedral is the shrine of king Edward11, who was in all probability murdered at Berkeley in 1327, and the ideology during this period of time, was that the king would have had a close association with God, and therefore Edward11 became a religious martyr. With this in mind pilgrims would have flocked to see his shrine, and this in turn would have enriched the cathedral's coffer.

The monastic precincts, now that they were being constructed with a more substantial material, allowed the sites to be more organized and the individual buildings became more recognizable. Therefore the monasteries and abbeys flowered within their boundary walls but the area which each was enclosed, varies considerably. The Benedictine abbey in Battle, East Sussex built on the site of the Battle of Hastings, is twenty acres in extent, while the Fountain abbey ( Cistercian ) in North Yorkshire sits within ninety acres.

                                                  . 
                                           

MONKS CELLARM FOUNTAINS ABBEY ( KATIE CHAN )

             
The site of the monastery was determined on the local availability of a substantial water supply, perhaps from a river, a spring or a well which would then be supplemented by the gathering of rain water. Within the site there would have been a complex of buildings, with the most important one being the church. Here many services were held in the choir and numerous masses at the High Alter.

THE WORKING WATER SUPPLY ( Bond 1991 )

The cloister was the centre of the monks daily life and they were assigned duties by the abbot or by one of the obedientiaries. This covered walkway gave easy access from one apartment to another, including the living and sleeping areas of the brethren. Also a hall where they dined and a kitchen and domestic offices. Then there were the obedientiaries, who were responsible for the internal administration, including the clothing and feeding of the monks, who would have had their own storage departments and offices. In other apartments the monks would have read and studied and copied manuscripts in the scriptorium.

Numerous monasteries were fortified with high stone walls and a staffed gatehouse. Many of these gatehouses were large and imposing structures being two or more stories high and would have housed the gatehouse keeper. The main arch way was for wheeled carts and on one side of the arch was a smaller doorway for those on foot and these would have given entry to the outer courtyard only. And within this courtyard would be the stables, workshops and cemeteries, and was also the area where outside labour was employed.

THORNTON ABBEY GATEHOUSE ( DAVID WRIGHT CC)

A site in Durham has its own unique history for being a place of religious worship since the period of rule by the Anglo-Saxons. On this ground Durham priory ( Benedictine ) was founded in 1083 replacing the older Anglo-Saxon church. In turn this priory was dissolved in 1540 when the Church of England took on the responsibility of the cathedral. Over the course of time a whole community was established and prospered around this religious site.

MICKLEGATE AT YORK (IAN PUDSEY CC)

                                                            




                                            

Durham cathedral, along with Canterbury and York Minster are world famous, and has much stone-work in the Romanesque style while York is mostly Gothic. But they had one thing in common, that was how to keep the money flowing into their coffer's, especially from pilgrims with the shrines of saints, false relics and charms.














As well as the above, monasteries had an array of channels adapted for gathering in their coinage of

wealth. A popular one was the collecting of a tithe from the local population of which many were poor smallholders or agricultural labours The tithe was a levy of one tenth of their yearly earnings and was possibly settled with crops/grain/ milk and young animals. In return, as the population believed in God, heaven and hell it was a worthwhile investment for their salvation if the monks could smooth the path for their souls to ascend into heaven. Also dues had to paid for registering baptisms, marriages and deaths.

                                                                 PURGATORY

Purgatory ( to purge ) was the sapling that would grow to be a source of great wealth to the church and some monasteries, for when its fruits were harvested by the monks its seeds helped to hurry in the development of chantries. This was accelerated in 1311 A D when all religious personnel were required to take Holy Orders after their probationary period, and would have to recite a mass every morning before noon at the church altar. Where the brethren numbered thirty or more it made it impracticable to organise, without the aid of multiple altars, and the rapid rise of the chantry movement just added to the problem.

The catholic doctrine tells us that some souls are purified after death, and such souls would benefit from the prayers and pious duties that the living do for them. This was known as the Communion of Saints, which was for the atonement of their souls from sin, and make them ready to enter the kingdom of heaven. This search for atonement coupled with the believe that there was a heaven and a hell, encouraged monetary endowments for the recitation of specific masses for the spiritual protection of the benefactor during his life on earth. Some of the more wealthy benefactors stipulated that the altar was dedicated to a particular saint. The belief being, that the chosen saint was a powerful protector, and being a advocate with God, would guide him through life, so that his soul on his death would be more ready to enter the Kingdom of Heaven.

During the fourteenth century the cult of soul-masses was the motive underlying chantry endowments. This now powerful Christian belief, captured the imagination of the nobility, Royalty and wealthy merchants, and the nature of the chantry depended upon the value of the endowment. The most lavish of endowments would have engaged the building of a perpetual chantry, a special chapel that was reserved solely for masses on behalf of its founder and his/her family. Some chanty altars were also endowed with gold furnishing, valuable vestments and liturgical garments and articles. 

It seems that all endowments were the responsibly of the "Chantry Priests" who were not ordinaries and did not offer public masses. Although they served their communities in other ways, like teaching and educating the urban poor and rural families, including all their children. Over the course of time some chantries were converted into schools of education. These chantries were beyond the feudal control of the Crown and therefore did not pay any taxes.

All this changed when the Abolition of the Chantries Acts of 1547 and 1549 were implemented, which stated that chantries were deemed to be misapplied funds and misappropriated lands, and all chantries and their properties would now belong to the King. The current King at this time was Henry's young son Edward V1. It is recorded that 2374 chantries and guild chapels were seized with their assets. Most were sold and others were converted into private dwellings, although some of the funds raised were allocated to education.

There were a dozen or more different religious orders and arguably the first Cistercian order at Rievaulx Abbey built in North Yorkshire, was one of the most captivating and diverse regarding its design and its gathering of wealth. During the year 1132 twelve monks from Clairvaux Abbey, which was situated in north eastern France arrived in York. They were recognized by their sartorial white habits, which indicated and reflected their spiritual pure intentions and their rejection of any personal possessions, rather than the accepted black habits, which were then worn by the monks in England. These monks were seeking out a secluded and peaceful place where they could construct and establish a new Cistercian monastery. 

Rievaulx Monastery ( wikipedia )

 

They settled for a remote location in a wooded dale close to the river Rye, which would have guaranteed a regular water supply. The technical ingenuity of these entrepreneurial monks included mining lead and iron. They also spent time rearing sheep and selling wool to buyers from all over Europe. In due course their monastery became one of the wealthiest in England. They were well supported by an 'army' of Lay Brothers of which many were skilled in agriculture and worked the land for free. Others had skills in handicraft and all were distinguished from their brethren as they wore a simple in style brown tunic. This abbey thrived with grants of land from Archbishop Thurstan, possibly about 5,000 acres. Another 1,000 acres came from Walter Espec, a distinguished military figure, who in later life became himself a Cistercian monk.

Another very successful Cistercian monastery (1135) was Fountains Abbey. The monks here were also avid sheep farmers and wool producers. This Abbey also was in Yorkshire and its substantial remains can be viewed 3 miles south-west of Ripon.

The Fountains Abbey its self covered 70 acres and was protected by a 3.4 meter high wall. The abbey was founded when Archbishop Thurstan granted the community around 460 acres of land, although these lands were not his own, but were part of the Diocesan estate. When the abbey was sold by the Crown in 1540 it had grown to over 500 acres. It was purchased by Sir Richard Gresham who was at the time a member of Parliament. This gentleman's wealth also paid for the tapestries in Cardinal Wolsey's Hampton Court.

Fountains Abbey and Rievaulx Abbey began a demise in the early 14th century as Northern England was invaded by the Scots and this was compounded by the ravages of the Black Death of 1348-1349.

                                              THE EXPANDING TOWNS

By 1300 A D it is estimated that there existed more than 500 monasteries which were staffed by at least 10,000 people. This growth was stimulated by the expansion of the population to between 4/5 million souls and to the popularity of living in the prosperous towns. It seems that Oxford with a population of 7,000 had 17 varying religious orders within it, or close by, to choose from.

It is possible that the traveling Friars related to the religious orders of the Carmelites, Augustinians, Dominicans and Franciscans, unknowingly sowed a seed of doubt into the subconscious of the town folk, which would eventually cause some to question the religious morals of the Monastic monks.

These Friars lived on the charity of the people, unlike the monks who lived from the land, and preached in open places. Their spiritual message to the town folk was that they should look after their own spiritual salvation and their motivation was the example of Jesus.

A spiritual life of solitary communion with God was also pursued by the Anchorites. A male was known as a anchorite and the females were addressed as anchoress. These religious recluses lived alone in rooms which were usually adjoined the west end of a church. Many of these devoted persons were at the very centre of their community for they offered spiritual guidance to visitors and they could observe mass and partake of the Eucharist. 

The Anchorites basic needs were managed by possibly two servants, and the Anchorites themselves would never be allowed to be free of their encased environment.

As the monks began to expand their religious time to the call of the growing population, some monasteries started to employ lay scribes and illuminators, who were instrumental for the relocation of many monks into more priestly duties.

                                              THE BEGINNING OF THE END

Very few religious houses came into existence during the fourteenth century for benefactions, which in the past had fallen mainly to the monastic establishments, were now swallowed up by chantries and to the founding of schools and eventually to the expanding colleges. But it was the invention of the printing press by Johan Gutenberg during the 1400s that had an immense and negative impact on the monasteries. Before this invention writing was always done by hand and was seemingly a privilege reserved by educated monks and scribes, for all would have been done in the Holy language of Latin, but Gutenberg's printing press effectively democratized access to the written word.

This was used with vigour around 1517 by the German monk and Theologian of Christianity Martin Luther, who called for mayor revamps within the church. Luther proposed an academic discussion regarding his Ninety-five theses. But when he refused to renounce these writings during 1521, he was excommunicated by the then Pope Leo X and was condemned as an outlaw by the Holy Roman Emperor, who was at this time in history, perceived to rule by "Divine Right".

This now moves us on to William Tyndale, a gifted linguist, which included Greek, Hebrew, Latin and German. Tyndale translated the New Testament, possibly with the aid of Luther's German translation,

into a vernacular language which made it available to the common English speaking people in 1525. He then began translating the Old Testament. Also, he unwisely promoted himself as an advocate against Henry V111's planned annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, and sadly during 1536 he was found guilty of heresy and executed. Tyndale's translation of the Bible was eventually completed by Miles Coverdale. But within four years of Tyndale's death four English translations of the Bible were published in England at the king's behest.

In time the Bible became readily and accessible to all people which would usher in a chasm within Christianity, pitting the Protestants against the Catholics. The Protestants did not believe in the supremacy of the Pope and rejected purgatory, for they believed only in the scripture of the Bible.

Arguably the suppression of the religious houses began during England's war with France, when the question of national security arose regarding all the "alien" priories in England. Although many were merely just manors or a single estate, but owned by foreign abbeys. Around 1414, during the reign of Henry V, all of the remaining alien priories had their houses, property and possessions confiscated by the Crown. And the bulk of this was used for the endowment of religious houses and colleges of royal foundation.

In reality the greatest tribulation that befell the monasteries, which ultimately caused them to be vulnerable to the Dissolution, was the heavy mortality rate of the monks due to the pestilence known as the Black Death (bubonic plague) during 1349. The nunneries also suffered in the same way, and, no doubt with the loss of many experienced clergy the regular discipline and function of the religious houses fell into decline.

Further outbreaks of the plague in 1361 and 1368 rendered the plight of the monasteries more desperate, which was made worse in 1410 when a Bill was set before Parliament requesting that all the non-spiritual lands that had been bequeathed to the Church should be transferred to the ownership of the Crown. This caused much dismay and alarm and opposition amongst the various religious orders.

There can be no doubt that the religious establishments as a whole never managed to recover from the bubonic plague, for there were not enough recruits from those who wished to embrace the monastic life from outside, to compensate for the enormous and sudden decrease in their numbers. This decline inevitably caused the extinction of a number of the small and poor houses, although some did manage to become amalgamated with larger foundations.

Seemingly and in spite of their wealth,  even the richest houses were beset by money difficulties, for much was spent on hospitality and the daily almsgiving. This, with the upkeep of their property and the financing of pensions and corrodies was a serious drain on their income. Many of the monasteries would have been heavy in debt and with insufficient assets were reduced to a state of bankruptcy.

Also within the history books, there were rumblings of discontent regarding the internal capabilities of the abbot and his brethren. There were issues of grave moral offences, costly living and the expensive choice of food. 

As the end of the fifteenth century approached, many of the smaller monasteries and nunneries were in poverty and their clergy struggled to survive within the crumbling decay of their houses. Consequently the Crown and the ecclesiastics who held high office within the church deemed that the revenues of these houses could be more proficiently used elsewhere. When the required and essential preliminaries were completed, which included Papal sanction, the patron's permission and gaining a royal licence, the said religious house could then be suppressed and its revenues and properties confiscated.

Many of the Alien buildings and possessions of these suppressed houses helped to enrich the growing colleges of Eton and Kings college in Cambridge, and more was to follow when the suppression of the smaller English houses was complete. 

Wolsey, now Henry V111 Almoner ( Keeper of the Privy Purse), founded Christ Church at Oxford in place of the priory of St Frideswide, and also obtained the suppression of a number of the smaller monasteries for the endowment of his colleges at Ipswich and Oxford. And then during 1519 Wolsey was engaged as the Cardinal Legate, and Pope Leo X issued a bull, which empowered him to to reform the monasteries of this country. Wolsey's measures at this period in time, no doubt had genuine reform for their end, but the later acts of suppression were prompted by far different causes.

Cardinal Wolsey, now empowered by the Papal Bull of 1524, and assisted by Thomas Cromwell, dissolved 22 monasteries and 3 nunneries in which the number of "inmates" was fewer than 12. Wolsey then died in Leicester during November 1530 and by 1532 Cromwell was Chief Minister to the king and was enthusiastic towards Henry's claim to be head of the church of England, and in time he became the King's Vicar General and would organise the general Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1536.

Two unique happenings, one in 1529 and the other during 1536 highlighted how Christianity had fallen into the abyss of disunity within the realm. In 1529 Simon Fish a protestant reformer published in a 16 page pamphlet the "Supplication for the Beggars" which was condemned as heretical by the Roman Catholic Church in 1530. Its content was, it could be said, dedicated to King Henry V111 to remind him that the Roman Catholic Church owned 1/3rd of his realm and consequently held half of England's wealth. Also within it were the social and economic concerns of his people which perhaps could be helped if the clergy were made to pay taxes.

Then in 1534, the Acts of Supremacy made Henry V111 "Supreme Head on Earth of the Church of England" as the Pope had in 1533 excommunicated Henry from the Roman Catholic Church in response to the King's marriage with Catherine of Aragon. The protestants, at this time in history, were only a small portion of the population and suffered much persecution, so the rift between the King and the Papacy in Rome was something to celebrate.

Sadly, at the back end of 1536 a serious uprising engulfed the North of England which was lead by the lawyer Robert Aske. History gave it the name the Pilgrimage of Grace, which ultimately failed for its leaders were "out foxed" by the King's diplomacy. Insecurity and instability would have swamped many of the populous within the northern counties at this time. There had been a poor harvest in 1535 plus many of the smaller religious houses, which would have perhaps helped to feed the very poor, had already fallen to the policies of Thomas Cromwell. The northern nobility had called for the re-establishment of the Catholic Church and the Pope as their religious leader. 

The King's retribution was severe and many paid with their lives, also the Pilgrimage of Grace brought disaster upon the abbeys which had supported it, while others made terms with Henry by surrendering their possessions to the Crown. Sadly many monks from the Augustinian Hexham Priory were executed.

                 LOST TO POSTERITY IN AN ORGY OF DESTRUCTION  (1536-1540)

The Anti Papal legislation of 1532-1533 was the beginning of the end of the monastic system in England and in 1534 more legislation denied all financial payments to Rome, which would now be paid instead to the Crown, while the Pope also lost his authority to appoint bishops to vacant sees in England. The languid pace by the Crown of the earlier suppressions now began to accelerate and confiscations were pursued on a much larger scale, and during 1535 commissioners were appointed by the Crown to evaluate the wealth of the church and their monasteries. 

Thomas Cromwell, having absolute authority regarding the Suppression, employed as commissioners notoriously evil men who were void of sympathy but had their hearts full only of self advancement and greed.

By 1540 the deed was done. 900 religious houses and 625 monastic communities had fallen. The abbots, monks and nuns of the houses that had voluntarily "surrendered" were granted pensions of varying amounts, but of the houses that had resisted those in authority were confronted by the penalty of death.

All of the dissolved establishments were subject to unannounced visits by Royal agents appointed by the Court of Augmentations. These agents formulated an inventory of all the contents within and outside the property, which included any livestock that the house was responsible for. Some historians from the distant past suggest that within these agents was a hard-core criminal element and fraudulent practices was rife. Many items of value may have consequently ended up embellishing their own private dwellings or sold for their own financial gain. The King was affectively being robbed.

Much plunder was taken from the apartments of the monasteries which included all furniture and fittings, until all that was left was the bare carcase of the building. Altars were destroyed, images yanked away from their niches, lamps, wall hangings, screens, choir stalls, all were auctioned off. Any choir stalls and screens that remained unsold in some of the religious houses were just burnt.

Treasures of gold and silver were collected as were sacred vessels, crucifixes, plate, pewter, rings and jewelled gloves. Also shrines were targeted, and jewels and precious stones were torn from Becket's shrine at Canterbury. Much lead was exported while the bell metal was used for the making of the King's guns. Henry, now fearful that his break from Rome could result in a large scale invasion by the French and Spanish, utilized material from some of the fallen monasteries to build a chain of defences along Britain's southern and eastern coast, from Kent to Cornwall. Also many existing coastal defences were strengthened, which included Dover castle.

The King's "representatives" now fuelled with the energy of power, ransacked the monastic libraries. All of the priceless manuscripts of which many were enriched with exquisite illuminations but not recognized by the illiterate commissioners as items of historical value, were sold for a pittance. Thousands of books were purchased just for their vellum ( a fine parchment made from the skin of a calf ) which could be used in alternative ways, perhaps for wrapping fresh fruit and vegetables. Any unsold books were burnt. Fortunately many were rescued before they were sacrificed, by a gentleman named Matthew Parker ( b 1504 d 1575 ) who was the Archbishop of Canterbury for the last sixteen years of his life. I believe now the Parker Library is on the web, and may have digital images of all his rescued manuscripts available to view on line.

As the dust began to settle after this apocalypse of religious persecution and destruction, there appeared, dotted here and there across England's green and pleasant land, a number of relatively unscathed small parish churches. It seems that a few of these churches were saved by the collective purse of the parishioners. Meanwhile a number of the monastic churches were also "bought back" by the local townspeople and the nunnery church of Romsey was purchased for £100, and the deed of sale is preserved in its vestry. Other monastic churches survived due to the prescriptive rights of worship ( 20 years or more ) long enjoyed by the laity, usually in the nave and aisles. Fortunately the Court of Augmentation had instructed its Commissioners to respect parochial rights in such churches. Sadly the parishioners at other priory churches had, seemingly, to content themselves with just the nave and aisles as the rest of the church was demolished around them.

                                                       THE AFTERMATH

The Valor Ecclesiasticus, which was a survey of the finances of the church, tells us that the total net income from the dissolution of the monasteries was £136.000. This was more than three times the income from all of the Crown estates in the year 1536. But from this £136,000 pensions and annuities would have been due to the dispossessed clergy and many monks and nuns. Interestingly Eustace Chapuys the imperial ambassador to England for Charles V, who was the Holy Roman Emperor and the current King of Spain, tells us that Cromwell unsuccessfully tried to encourage Henry to use the monastic lands as an endowment off which the monarchy could continuous feed.

By 1547 around two-thirds of all the monastic estates had been sold or leased, but not before the King had gifted much land and properties to those who had rendered him valuable support and service. Cromwell was granted a number of properties which included the Cluniac priory of Lewes. Other significant beneficiaries were the Dukes of Norfolk, Suffolk and Northumberland and the Chancellor of the Court of Augmentations, Sir Richard Rich. The sale of these monastic lands principally increased the acreage of the landed estates which were already in existence and were  purchased predominantly by noblemen and courtiers.

The church buildings, except some of the abbey churches that were to be reconstituted as cathedrals and others which had to be preserved wholly or partially for parochial worship, were sold, either in one lot or, more often, were disposed of piecemeal, it was an orgy of total destruction. ( a comprehensive list of the monasteries dissolved by Henry VIII, with pictures and information, can be viewed on line from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia ).  

The new proprietors of these monastic estates managed their acquisitions in a number of different and defining ways. Some felt the need to incorporate parts of the old conventual buildings to help enhance parts of their new "modern" mansions, although most of the churches were habitually just pulled down, with the masonry being reused for constructing roads. Numerous monastic churches now roofless and derelict became stone quarries, and only had fungi and invertebrates to accompany them on their final journey.

    KING HENRY V111 ( b 1492 - d 1547 ) REIGNED FROM 1509 - 1547 AND HIS FINANCES

 

Henry the 8th inherited an estimated £1,250,000 but by the time of the dissolution much of this inheritance was spent.

The King's father, Henry the 7th, who reigned from August 1485 until his death in April 1509 had seemed to be-able to maintain a certain level of peace with the use of treaties and alliances. He succeeded in ending the Wars of the Roses which was fought between the Houses of Lancaster and York and founded the Tudor dynasty. He also managed to create economic prosperity through trade and by improving the mechanisms of tax collection, although history tells us that it was the nobles who "suffered" the most from increased taxes, but this prudent monarch restored the fortunes of an effectively bankrupt exchequer.

Unfortunately his son was still in his late teens when he ascended the throne. He was charismatic, confident, but was also extravagant. Henry the 8th "raided" the kingdom's coffers for  maintaining his court and for building and restoration works at his Royal Palaces, while having a passion for tapestries of which many were woven using gold and silver thread. Over 2450 tapestries were listed in the inventory taken after his death. Many would have been used to create a majestic atmosphere suited to his royal activities. 

Arguably two of the most magnificent reside at Hampton Court Palace. The Field of Cloth of Gold depicts, in the Pale of Calais, the meeting in June 1520 of Henry V111 and King Francis 1 of France. It is an flamboyant display of power, wealth and status. The other is the outstanding Story of Abraham, a set of tapestries made in Brussels for Henry V111.

Field of the Cloth of Gold ( British School )

In January 1547 Henry died and was succeeded by his son Edward V1, who was just 9 years old. Because of his young age he was denied direct rule so consequently Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford and the new Kings uncle, was installed as Lord Protector of the Realm. Edward V1was England's first Protestant Monarch but he died aged 15 on 6th July 1553. But during his reign the confiscation of church property continued, notably with the dissolution of the chantries and by the end of his short reign the church had been financially ruined.

                                                     THE CONCLUSION

Between 1536 and 1540 more than 650 religious houses were suppressed, all caught within the teeth of an cataclysmic never ending turbulent and tempestuous storm. This storm began to brew during the 14th Century as the number of people willing to follow a monastic life decreased. The Black Death compounded the problem and by the Century's end many of the monastic houses were half empty. Henry the 8th administered the Coup de grace in his quest to finance the forthcoming war with Scotland and his alliance with Charles V against France. This was, I believe, a distressing and a sad demise for a foundation that established, and were the pioneers, of introducing learning and culture to their local population.

They also facilitated the prosperousness of this country in agriculture, farming and in the wool industry and were the forerunners of universities and hospitals including St Bart's in London. The monks preserved many of the classical works from Antiquity by Aristotle, Cicero, Plato, Homer and Sophocles. 

Also the still standing remains of the monastic churches and buildings have given us a glimpse of the wealth of mediaeval architecture that has been lost to posterity, although much is to be seen in a warehouse in Yorkshire, which is under the supervision of English Heritage. They hold many stone sculptures that adorned the ruins of many northern sites, including Whitby and Byland abbeys and Kirkham priory.

The nunneries also played a role in society by giving spiritual guidance to the  "un-marriageable "and unwanted daughters of the Nouveau Riche. Apparently a natural daughter of Cardinal Wolsey was a unprofessed nun at Shaftesbury abbey in Dorset. 

The passing of the monasteries was inevitable, for their functionality was being slowly diminished by the printing press and by self employed illuminators who worked duplicating and decorating the medieval manuscripts. Also some of their wealthy patrons were beginning to finance the growing schools, colleges and universities instead, and with the Protestant Reformation gaining pace in continental Europe their leading role on the peoples spiritual life continued to be eroded.

I feel it is worth remembering that some of these religious houses had accommodation fit for royalty, for kings and nobles were entertained at the expense of the abbot and convent. In 1314 Queen Isabella stayed at Christ Church Priory in Canterbury, while Richard 11 in 1378 held a seven week Parliament at the abbey's of Gloucester and Tewkesbury. Also Henry V1 spent Christmas at Bury St Edmunds abbey in1453, while Henry V111 and Jane Seymour also stayed at Thornton abbey for several days.

Sadly the austere way of life of the monks, in some monasteries, became corrupted by wealth which resulted in a more lavish life style, and many became fat, as seen in an illustration of a overweight monk riding a donkey, relating to a Geoffrey Chaucer tale. While others fell foul to the embroidered charms of sexual desire.

As the end neared it seems that the Anchoresses were the only living souls left who were mirroring the life of Christ, a heavenly representative for her community and the public flocked to these holy women, the true inheritors of the monastic tradition.

                                    DERRICK A NAPIER,

                                         18/01/2021