Read Roman Mosaics: Villa Romana Del Casale

THE VILLA ROMANA DEL CASALE

As the coach effortlessly wove its way in a continuing downward spiral, my view of the terracotta roof tiles of the houses in the village below was replaced by an army of tall, regimented trees. On passing these the driver entered the coach park, parked his vehicle alongside another and silenced its engine. When stepping out of the coach, my eyes instinctively rejected the bright, early morning light of the sun but, as I armed myself with sunglasses, my body soaked up its warming rays. As I impatiently made my way towards the villa’s entrance my eyes glimpsed, to the right and the left, men and women beginning to set out their stalls from which visitors to the villa would be able to purchase numerous items of memorabilia, including guide books written in a number of different languages.

Aerial picture of Villa Romana Del Casale

The villa is to be found nestled at the foot of Mount Mangone in the valley of the River Gela, which is populated with trees of pines, elms, poplars and hazels, about three kilometres south west of Piazza Amerina, a province of Enna, in Sicily. Archaeology suggests that this early 4^th century villa was a later addition to an earlier villa which was built between the 1^stcentury and the second half of the 3^rd century AD. The catalyst for the building of the villa was stimulated when, in late antiquity, Sicily’s Roman rulers partitioned most of its hinterland into huge agricultural estates, called ‘latifundia’, known in the singular as ‘latifundium’. The size of this building, with many of its rooms containing high quality mosaic floors and wall-paintings, suggest that this was probably the centre of such a latifundium and was also the residence of a wealthy man and his family, he possibly being a member of the Senatorial class. It is likely that this latifundium’s main function was to produce grain which would have been transported to Rome. But the villa itself, as well as being a residence, could have functioned as a centre of political and administrative power for the territories in which it resided.

The villa is a single storey building composed along three terraces at the foot of the hill and was built around three different axes. The first terrace lies to the east, bounded by an aqueduct which was supplied with water from the River Gela, which would then have drained into a raised tank. From here lead pipes divided up to feed water to various rooms in the villa. This terrace also contained the basilica and some private apartments, including the 60 metre long corridor of the Great Hunting Gallery. From here one could move to the second terrace, which was centred on a rectangular peristyle courtyard, which also included a triclinium complex with an oval courtyard. Both could be accessed from the corridor of the Great Hunting Gallery. The third terrace contained the baths and the monumental entrance to the villa marked by a tripartite niched arch. The villa complex is more than 550 metres above sea level and covers an area of 8.92 hectares (22.0 acres).

THE DEMISE OF THE VILLA

Sicily’s strategic location, in the centre of the Mediterranean Sea, and separated from the Italian mainland by the Strait of Messina, made the Island a crossroads of history, for it became a pawn of conquest and Empire.

By 440 AD, Sicily had been invaded by the Germanic tribe/s, known as ‘The Vandals’, who were commanded by King Genseric. In time, these warriors would have stumbled across the Roman villa and would have plundered it. Fortunately, it seems, that the mosaics and the villa’s frescoes remained secure and undamaged.

The Vandals followed a type of Christianity known as ‘Arianism’ which the Romans considered to be heretical. Consequently the Vandals began to persecute members of the catholic clergy. Although, in all probability, daily life in the rural areas would have been unaffected.

The next invaders, after the Ostrogoth’s, to wear the robes of rule in Sicily were the Byzantines. The ‘General’ Belisarius secured the island for his Emperor Justinian I.

The villa would possibly have become, by now, part of a rural settlement which was fortified and modified. The perimeter walls were thickened and the aqueduct which supplied the bath-house with water was terminated. The frigidarium within the villa’s bath-house was converted into a place for Christian worship. Archaeology seems to suggest that during the Arab and Norman rule of Sicily the villa was divided into many different living spaces and areas for productive activity. It had evolved as part of a larger medieval settlement. Sadly, sometime during the second half of the 12^th century a huge landslide, from the nearby Mount Mangone, buried the complex under tons of mud and foliage many metres deep. But, a new, thriving agricultural settlement began to be established nearer the city of Piazza which carried the name of Casale. As the years tumbled away, the villa would have faded from memory until it was completely forgotten.

THE REAWAKENING OF THE VILLA

Local farmers, with weather beaten faces, strong muscly backs and well-worn arms and hands, were instrumental in discovering where the Roman villa’s remains were buried. During their daily toils in the fields of the Gela River valley, at the foot of Mount Mangone, their ploughs struck the standing remains of some walls. This inspired the beginning of the resurrection of the villa from its tomb of numerous alluvial layers full of debris. As the word spread about the discovery of the walls, illicit digs by treasure hunters, hoping to find treasure of monetary value, began in the area. It is possible that damage was done to some of the mosaics during these clandestine excavations.

In 1820, a gentleman by the name of Sabatino Del Muto, on behalf of Roberto Fagan, the British Consul-General in Sicily, performed the first authorised excavation on the site. These early excavations threw up ideas, to the academics of the day, that the site may be the remains of an ancient temple. This theory was laid to rest when, during the 1881 excavations, in the central space of the triclinium, an area now known as ‘The Twelve Labours of Hercules’, was revealed. As these excavations proceeded nearby, a square pavement made of white marble slabs arranged in a circle was noticed. Also found were glass tesserae, in various colours, some of which had a gold or silver glaze. The archaeologists concluded that these tesserae must have covered the internal wall of a now destroyed (Basilica) building. Between 1929 and 1955 most of the shroud protecting the villa had been removed, revealing approximately 3500sq metres of mosaic floors. Further work between 1955 and 1963 targeted conservation projects in some of the rooms and the villa’s colonnades. Excavations during the 1970s helped to give more clarity to the chronology of the complex, while further campaigns between 1983 and 1988 yielded results concerning the succession of stratigraphy, plus recognition of structures relating to the early-first century AD roman villa. In 2004 part of the medieval habitation built on top of the later villa was discovered to the south.

Interestingly, during the 1929 excavations, on a parcel of land behind the villa and close to Mount Mangone, a late Byzantine necropolis was unearthed. This cemetery yielded an estimated one hundred graves, although many had been destroyed by farming activities and emptied of their funerary goods. The tombs were rectangular in shape and their insides were lined with rocks. The tombs were then sealed using sheets of local stone. A collection of grave goods were noticed, recorded and then retrieved. These were numerous small uncoloured earthenware, single-handle pitchers. All had been placed to the right and left of the skull of the deceased. The most interesting find was a small African Samian ware decorated flask.

THE VILLA TODAY

What awaits to welcome our eyes within the villa and its complex today, is the remains of what was possible to achieve in the Roman Imperial Age. Education and great wealth combined together to entice artists, craftsman, architects and engineers to create, with unparalleled splendour, a visual history of social practices and fashions of the late Roman aristocrats.

The outer shell of the villa, its walls, were built using locally sourced limestone and sandstone blocks. The ceilings were constructed with wood, and were possibly decorated, while terracotta tiles were used for the roofing. Pillars of marble, creating an atmosphere of opulence and style, were imported from North Africa and can be distinguished by colour. 90% of the marble used to decorate the Basilica came from Egypt. Also within the Basilica, some intense blue coloured lapis lazuli gemstone tesserae were discovered. This expensive material could have originated from the Jar-E-Sang mine deposits found in north east Afghanistan. In the frigidarium glass tesserae were excavated which were probably used as facing for its ceiling and for some parts of its walls.

The red and purple marble was known as porphyry, sourced from the Arabian region in Egypt, while other marble came from Italy, Greece, Africa (Libya) and Asia Minor. Within the villa there is a large range of marble veneers and two types have been recognised, lumachella from Egypt and madreponte rossa from Asia Minor.

The mosaicists who laid the floors were Carthaginians. Usually the geometrical mosaics were prepared in advance, within workshops that were close to the villa. Here they probably used templates for reoccurring patterns. The figurative mosaics were constructed on site using marble tesserae of an array of colours and shades. Perhaps the geometrical patterns were used to decorate the service rooms, while figurative mosaics decorated the private and more important rooms.

TOUR OF THE VILLA

KEY

1. ENTRANCE
2. POLYGONAL COURTYARD
3. LARGE LATRINES
4. SHRINE OF VENUS
5. BATH VESTIBLE
6. GYMNASIUM-PALESTRA
7. PRAEFURNIUM
8. CALDARIUM

9. TEPIDARIUM
10. MASSAGE ROOM
11. FRIGIDARIUM
12. PRIVATE LATRINE

13. VESTIBULE OF ADENVENTUS
14. SHRINE OF THE HOUSEHOLD GODS

15. QUADRANGULAR PERISTYLE
16. GARDEN AND FOUNTAIN

17. PRIVATE ENTRANCE TO THE BATHS
18. ROOM CONTAINING A KILN

19. INNER SERVICE ROOM
20. THE KITCHEN
21. FOURTH SERVICE ROOM

22. RAPE OF THE SABINE WOMEN
23. ROOM OF THE LOST MOSAIC

24. ROOM OF THE FOUR SEASONS
25. ROOM OF THE FISHING CUPIDS

26. ROOM OF THE SMALL HUNT
27. ROOM OF THE OCTAGON MOSAIC

28. ROOM OF THE CHEQUERED MOSAIC
29. CORRIDOR OF THE GREAT HUNT

30. ROOM OF THE PANELLED MOSAIC
31. ROOM OF THE BIKINI GIRLS

32. DIAETA OF ORPHEUS
3. THE SMALL COURT

34. CORRIDOR LINKING THE SQUARE PERISTYLE AND XYSTUS
35. THE KITCHEN

36. ROOMS OF THE GRAPE-HARVESTING CUPIDS
37. THE ELLIPTICAL PERISTYLE (XYSTUS)

38. ROOMS OF THE FISHING CUPIDS
39. THE TRIPLE-APSED TRICLINIUM

40. EASTERN AQUEDUCT
41. HALL OF ARION
42. ATRIUM OF THE FISHING CUPIDS

43. CUBICLE OF MUSICIANS AND ACTORS
44. VESTIBULE OF THE SMALL CIRCUS

45. VESTIBULE OF EROS AND PAN
46. CUBICLE OF THE CHILDREN HUNTING

47. THE OCTAGONAL LATRINE
48. THE GREAT BASILICA
49. VESTIBULE OF POLYPHEMUS

50. CUBICLE OF THE FRUIT MOSAIC
51. CUBICLE OF THE EROTIC MOSAIC.

THE ENTRANCE (1)

ENTRANCE

The monumental entrance to the villa is to the south. This imposing masonry structure, reinforced at its ends by squared stones, supported a three arched opening. The central one is the largest measuring 4.5 metres. These entrances were flanked by marble columns. At the base of the central pillars are four basins, all with their insides lined by simple white mosaics, which would have functioned as small fountains.

The two outer ones are rectangular and the two inner ones are shell-shaped. These fountains in antiquity would have been dedicated to minor female divinities (Nymphs) who embodied authentic forces of nature.

INSIDE OF ENTRANCE WALL

The four fountains were, perhaps, symbolically represented by the following; Nereids, the female spirits of seawaters; Naiads, the nymphs of rivers, streams and lakes; Dryads, the spirits of the forests; and the Hamadryads, who inhabited a particular single tree. On some parts of the fountains are mosaics with frescoes depicting foliage of flowering branches with birds showing an interest. Black, off white, grey and red coloured tesserae are noticed.

FRESCOS ON ENTRANCE WALL

A keen eye can pick out some of the frescos which have survived to this day, for to the right, on the long wall, horses’ hooves are still visible. And on the façade of the entrance, to the right, is a military banner with four golden heads representing the four emperors of the Tetrarchy. This was a system of government instituted by the emperor Diocletian in 293AD, which was to continue until 313AD.

During that period, it helped to end the crisis of the 3^rd century and generate the recovery of the empire. The four Tetrarchs were based in cities close to the empire’s frontiers and would have defended it from its bordering rivals. The four capitals were Nicomedia, which is modern Izmit in Turkey; Sirmuim in the Vojvodina region of modern Serbia; Mediolanum, now known as Milan, and Augusta Treverorum, now called Trier in Germany. By 313AD Constantine controlled the western half of the empire while Licinius controlled the east. But by 324AD Constantine had defeated Licinius and reunited the two halves of the Roman Empire.

THE POLYGONAL COURTYARD (2)

Just beyond the shell-shaped fountains our eyes are greeted by a polygonal-shaped courtyard. This courtyard was framed by a portico with eleven marble columns with ionic capitals. These capitals would have been characterised by the use of volutes (spiral scrolls) and egg and dart moulding (Greek). In the middle of the courtyard, which was paved with sandstone, was a square fountain, which would have collected rainwater which was then conveyed to the nearby large latrine. The ornamental tiling of the portico, which carried a multi-coloured geometric design, has all but disappeared.

MOSAIC FROM THE COURTYARD

THE LARGE LATRINES (3)

Access to the large latrines is through a small foyer, where a small portion of a black and white checkerboard mosaic has survived, which then opens up to a once sheltered semi-circular portico, which would have been supported by brick columns. The individual toilets were marble basins. The latrines mosaic ornamental tiling, of which a little is still visible today, was surrounded by a channel of constantly flowing water which then removed human waste away from this area. It would have eventually discharged into the River Gela. Curtains, individually hanging between the columns, would have generated a limited amount of privacy. These toilets were used by servants of the villa and visitors to the bath-house. In all probability, the resident family and invited guests used the latrines situated near to the Basilica.

MOSAIC FROM THE ENTRANCE

SHRINE OF VENUS (4)

This small room was possibly a shrine dedicated to the Goddess Venus, for parts of her statue were found here. She was the Roman Goddess of love, sex, and fertility whose Greek counterpart in mythology was Aphrodite. Also, this room would have served as the servants’ entrance to the bath complex.

NOTICE THE MODERN REPAIR AT THE TOP

Its mosaic floor is a colourful and skilful creation, containing a geometric design of squares and diamonds. If one’s eye is focused onto their black and white banded borders, the whole floor binds together, seemingly, in an up and down, and side to side fashion. The centres of the squares and diamonds each contain their own individual artistic design.

THE BATHS VESTIBLE (5)

This is a square room with frescoed walls and a stunning geometric designed mosaic floor. It brings together high quality artistic design, which was then brought to life by the craftsmanship of a master mosaicist.

The tesserae are small, but neatly laid, and his choice of colours blend well together. Grey/white and red/white guilloche binds the whole design together. The oval designs hold in their centres two fish, face to face. Their heads are black as are their small tail fins. They are completely surrounded by a wave design in red. The large concave square holds more of the same in diminishing sizes.

THE GYMNASIUM – PALESTRA (6)

This rectangular room with two apses and walls adorned by frescoes is dressed with much to view. The multi-coloured mosaics depict the Circus Maximus in Rome, where chariot races were held in honour of Ceres, the Goddess of agriculture and grain crops. In Rome the Circus Maximus was oblong in shape and split in two by a barrier (spine) that ran down the middle of the track. It was 621 metres (2037ft) in length and 118 metres (387ft) in width. Its circumference was one mile.

The chariot races were between four factions who owned and managed the horses and could be identified by different colours worn by the charioteers - green (Prasina), white (Albata), blue (Veneta) and red (Russata). Within this room at the villa, a number of shields holding these colours are displayed on sections of the floor close to the walls.

The central spine that would have divided the arena is depicted here with such precision that much is recognised that would have been on show at the Circus Maximus in Rome. At its centre is the obelisk 40.4 metres (132ft) high, which was brought to Rome from Egypt in 10 BC by the then Emperor Augustus. Also seen here is a tower (Phala) surrounded by columns, from where important guests would have gained a better view of the competing chariots. On its top perched the winged Nike, the Goddess who personified victory. There seems to be a bronze column at each end of the spine, and further on, my inquisitive eyes pick out a statue of the Goddess Cybele, the mistress of wild nature, on the back of a lion. Close by is the lap counter, a hanging line of sculpted marble eggs. These eggs were symbolic to Caster and Pollux, the divine patrons of the horse, for both were born from an egg. As each lap passed an egg was lowered.

Mosaics on either side of the southern entrance show groups of spectators and amongst the crowd two young boys offer them, from their trays, flat bread/buns. At the Circus Maximus in Rome 150,000 people could be accommodated within its three tier stadium. The first tier was constructed with stone and the other two were of wood.

Here, a boy, holding a long bolt in his hand, opens the gates (carceces) from which the chariots of the four factions would emerge, each being drawn by four horses with their heads decorated by a sprig of foliage and their tales plaited. The winning chariot seems to be from the Prasina faction, as the charioteer is dressed in a short green tunic. The palm of victory would have been presented to him by the Magistrate who is dressed in a richly coloured trimmed gown. Next to him is the judge (Tybicen) who, with his cheeks puffed out, is sounding a long tuba, which ends the competition. He looks rather grand wearing his official hat and red/black tunic which is held together by a brooch on his right shoulder.

Symbolically, this depiction of the Circus Maximus within this gymnasium, perhaps relates to the belief that the charioteers would have spent much time building up their muscles and fitness levels to able to compete successfully at these events.

Many scenarios seep into my head as to what manner this gym would have been used in Antiquity. For instance, were the young men here traditionalists and, like the Greeks, would have performed their efforts in the nude? And did they work to a specific routine of exercise? Also, were the walls lined with benches so an older generation of men could observe and meet up to talk politics and discuss philosophy? As I begin to smell the sweat, I decide to dismiss these thoughts from my mind, remove my aging eyes from this gymnasium and move on.

THE PRAEFURNIUM (7)

Here are the remains of the three furnaces where fires were lit to produce enough heat for warming air and water, which would then be channelled through terracotta pipes to the Caldarium. The outer walls of the furnaces were lined with terracotta tubila, which protected the walls and helped to prevent heat loss.

THE CALDARIUM (8)

This hot room was divided into three areas, so both men and women could bathe here. The rectangular bath tub to the left hand side was used by the men, and the tub at the right hand side was assigned for women.

Both tubs were supplied with hot water fed by pipes from the tanks upon the top of the furnaces. The central part of this room featured a raised floor that was supported by pillars of individual terracotta tiles (pilae). Hot air circulated along the pillars and then up the tubules in the walls (hypocaust) which created a sauna atmosphere. The room’s inner heat was regulated by two windows assisted, perhaps, by valves placed in the roof. All could be opened or closed to help maintain a constant temperature.

THE TEPIDARIUM (9)

This was a long room with both of its ends stylized by a semi-circular apse. A hypocaust was also noted and the room operated as a sauna. Hot air produced by the furnaces was regulated by two chimneys placed outside the two apses.

The mosaic floor was 20cm thick and was supported by 80cm high cotto brick columns. Sadly, most of the mosaics in this room have not survived, although the few fragments that remain possibly refer to a scene from the race of the torches (lampadedromia). This story originates from Greek mythology when in ancient times the Olympic Games was started with a torch race. The first athlete to arrive at the designated temple, such as the one dedicated to Prometheus, a Titan who stole fire from Mount Olympus and gave it to mankind, would gain the honour of lighting the official flame to start the games.

Eight brick pillars situated along the sides of this Tepidarium would have supported a barrel shaped roof, and consequently the condensation would run down this, rather than drip on to the bathers below.

It was prudent, on occasions, to wear sandals which had wooden soles to combat the heat of this floor.

The Tepidarium was a place for socializing and perhaps to conclude business deals. Also to make social plans and on occasions to find an audience for political speeches.

THE MASSAGE ROOM (10)

This small room abuts the Tepidarium and contains a faded framed mosaic which shows signs of an attempted repair, possibly carried out during the Byzantine period. Five male figures are presented to us, of which four are possibly slaves. In the top part of the mosaic one slave seems to be giving a massage to the second figure, while the third has at his disposal the ‘tools’ of the massage room. He has in his right hand an ampoule, which hangs from a strap, which would contain aromatic oils, and a strigil. The perfumed oils were applied to the skin and then scraped off, along with any sweat and dirt, by the strigil, a metal instrument with a curved blade.

Below them are two more slaves, each with their names written upon their loincloths, Titus and Cassius. Cassius was probably born in Syria, betrayed by his cone-shaped hat. Titus possibly cleaned the strigil with the water in the bucket, which he carries in his right hand, while Cassius would mop up any spilt water and other mess. Part of the mosaic showing the long handle of the mop has been lost.

THE FRIGIDARIUM (11)

On entering this huge octagonal-shaped room, my mind’s eye is immediately entrusted with its past magnificence. In antiquity the art work under my feet would have been glorified by wall frescoes and a decorated ceiling. Its supporting marble columns, with their flowing pale colours, would have given the Frigidarium the presence of subdued royalty.

This room was embellished with six recesses, two contained cold water baths, while the other four were changing areas equipped with benches where bathers could deposit their clothes. It was possible that slaves could be hired to keep ones belongings safe.

The central room holds an imaginative visual creation boosted by a tapestry of numerous and integrating colours. Within the mosaic’s centre is an incomplete circle of four narrow boats. Each has a figure head at the front and a curving tail at the rear. All of the boats contain two cupids, rowing and fishing. Many species of fish swim around the boats as do sea-lions, dolphins and octopuses. All of these natural beings are joined in the sea by mythological creatures including Nereids, the female spirits of the seawater. Tritons are also present; their upper bodies are of human form while their lower bodies are of fish. A Centaur is noticed, being half human and half horse. It commanded human intelligence and speech. There is also a place for a Hippocampus, with the upper body of a horse and lower body of a fish.

Two of the recesses still retain nearly intact bath-house scenes. One focuses on a man and the other on a woman. The man is portrayed seated on a leopard-skin stool, with his right hand he holds together what seems like a dressing gown. Sadly, his left hand is lost. His servant on his right holds what seems like a towel, after just finishing drying his master’s back. The servant on his left holds in readiness, on a tray, the rest of his clothes.

MARBLE VENEER

The other scene, framed in a semicircle, illustrates a pensive looking woman being sensitively aided to undress by two handmaids. As I reflect on these two mosaics, my mind conjures up a thought that the man could be an official of high office, a person of status and wealth. He sits on an expensive leopard-skin cushion and his bathrobe looks chunky but stylish. Also his two servants wear similar shoulder panels and their tunics are of quality-looking fabrics.

THE PRIVATE LATRINE (12)

This semi-circular room was accessed at the foot of a short flight of stairs. In Antiquity this room had a door which would have guaranteed privacy. Opposite the three marble toilets there seems to have been a marble wash basin; above it is a hole, suggesting that running water was available for personal hygiene. To occupy one’s eyes while busy, is a mosaic floor which contains within a black border five animals. These animals, a leopard, ass, hare, partridge and a great bustard are seemingly engaged in a game of chase.

Beneath the toilets was the sewer which flowed with water, removing all the waste down a westward gradient and away from the villa.

FRESCOS ON THE TOILET WALLS

THE VESTIBULE OF THE ADENVENTUS (13)

This rectangular room stimulates interest and much intrigue, even though most of its mosaic floor has been lost to the ravages of time. It is possible that it had multiple functions. As well as being a place to greet and welcome important guests, there are indications that perhaps on occasions it may have been used for a place of worship.

The outer part of the mosaic, known as the mat, contains a geometric diamond pattern and all of the boxes, when looked at with inquisitive eyes, reveal small white crosses. The figurative creation within this mosaic is seemingly surrounded by a continuing line of red tesserae in a dentil design.

When viewed, we see a figure holding in his right hand a candelabra. He gives the impression, by his quality and elegant attire, of being of regal status, or at least a master of ceremonies. The person standing behind him and wearing a tunic is probably a servant, as all the other figures seem to have their heads decorated with laurel leaves. In the bottom half of the mosaic a figure grips a book, possibly a prayer book? Perhaps, then, this mosaic depicts a service of worship? Returning to the top of this figurative piece, two small branches of olive leaves are seen - the olive leaves being the classical symbolism of peace and the laurel of divine love.

THE SHRINE OF THE HOUSEHOLD GODS (14)

This small apsidal is in the south-west corner and to the right of the peristyle’s frontal portico. It is a rectangular room flanked by two columns which would have helped to support the shrine. The shrine is floored with an eight sided star geometric mosaic which is supported by a number of diamond and square lozenges with motifs in their centres. The centre of the mosaic holds a laurel wreath which in turn contains an ivy leaf. The laurel and ivy symbolise perennial life and immortality. This shrine would have imparted an atmosphere of intimacy between the living and their departed family members. Within it the good spirits of the dead would be worshipped to encourage from them a blessing for the family’s prosperity. This activity was known as the Worship of the Lares. The origin of this worship can be traced back to the fact that, until it was forbidden by the Laws of the Twelve Tables (449 BC), the Romans buried their dead in their own houses. Within the shrine there would have been a small altar which would have held statues of the household divinities.

THE QUADRANGULAR PERISTYLE (15)

The peristyle measured 38m by 18m and was surrounded by 32 slender fluted columns probably sourced from eastern Greece. All were topped with Corinthian capitals decorated with acanthus leaves and scrolls. These columns were all connected by a low marble-covered wall. Seemingly, on either side of all the columns were sculptured marble dolphins. To the south side, along its main wall are the remains of some frescos showing a procession of armed figures carrying large shields.

This peristyle is surrounded by a continuing corridor of 162 square mosaic panels. All of which are bound together by a never ending frame of multi-coloured guilloche. The centres of the individual squares present a shield like effect with four straps binding the laurel wreaths in place. Featured within the laurel wreaths, and enclosed by a circle of black/grey tesserae, are animal heads of wild and domestic natures.

The laurel wreaths themselves are bounded by a similar circle while the four corners of the squares are shared by ivy leaves with tendrils and varying species of birds. The laurel wreaths diversify alternately from dark to light in their composition.

ROMAN GENERAL GOVERNOR OF DIOCESE OF AFRICA?

THE GARDEN AND FOUNTAIN (16)

Inside the peristyle was a garden furnished with a three-basin fountain which had an east-west orientation. It consisted of two semi-circular basins, one at each end, with a wider circular one in the middle which contained the fountain. The fountain received its water via an eastern aqueduct. The pools’ bottoms, sides and borders were dressed with a geometric mosaic.

I imagine that, like the mosaics, the garden was designed and presented in such a way to promote a positive impact on serenity for the mind and seduce, by an array of colours at all times of the year, the viewers’ eyes. History reveals that a roman garden could have been an amalgamation of some of the following: cypress, rosemary, mulberry trees and a variety of smaller dwarf trees. Extra colours could have been generated by roses, violets, marigolds, cassia, narcissi and hyacinths. Perhaps small paved paths would have invited peaceful strolls around the garden.

The peristyle had a positive impact in allowing light to penetrate the adjoining rooms and its garden was a meeting place for cordial encounters.

PRIVATE ENTRANCE TO THE BATHS (17)

The villa’s family and their guests would have gained entry to the baths through this room. The room itself presents a figurative mosaic harbouring the suggestion that it represents the mother of the villa’s family accompanying two of her children to the baths. The ‘hostess,’ the central figure of the five, demands my attention with her fashionable stylized hair, earrings, sophisticated necklace and her long sweeping gown with its wide sleeves. Her face, seemingly, is about to break into a smile as she affectionately places her left hand upon her child’s shoulder. The other young person, to her right, seems to be holding on to mother’s arm which is obscured by the mother’s luxurious gown. To the far right and left are two maids.

The one on left holds an open basket containing clothes to be worn after the visit to the baths. The other maid, in her right hand, holds the straps of a box which possibly contains oils to be used on the family’s bodies when the bathing has finished. This maid also possesses a red shoulder bag in which, perhaps, the family’s personal items of jewellery are kept safe while they are bathing. Both of the children seem to be wearing warm cloaks over their tunics, while their mother wears a stola beneath her gown.

This mosaic is framed within three bands of black tesserae and also noticed is a high backed armchair with an urn close by. The hand of the mosaicist shows much skill by defining the folds within the figures’ garments and the shadows at their feet. The whole scene is elegant and dignified. It is so sad that the wall art has all but disappeared.

ROOM CONTAINING A KILN (18)

This service room was entered via the peristyle, next to the door which gave entry to the baths. It holds a geometric mosaic which in parts is fairly well preserved.

Unfortunately, in one corner a kiln was built during the Arab or Norman era, which destroyed that part of the mosaic. The mosaic as seen today contains crosses formed by intertwined guilloche and circles of light and dark tesserae. All of these circles have a circular band of white tesserae and at their centres have varying styles of motifs. The lozenges all hold the same styled motifs and all of the designs interconnect.

INNER SERVICE ROOM (19)

This room, behind the first, was also used by service personnel and was floored by an intricate and eye absorbing geometric mosaic, displaying in red, white and dark green/black tesserae, stars, squares and hexagons.

Here we see hexagons holding a six pointed star which in turn contains six petal stylised flowers. The outer tips of the hexagons touch a four pointed star that encloses a square containing a Solomon knot. There are numerous squares that blend into the overall design and all have their own varying individual motifs.

THE KITCHEN (20)

This rectangular shaped room did not possess a mosaic, only a floor covered in lime mortar mixed with crushed pottery. It seemed to have contained a masonry tank with a lead wastewater runoff pipe and a raised bed for hot coals used for cooking.

FOURTH SERVICE ROOM (21)

This service room is situated next to the first service room and could be entered from the peristyle. Nearly half of its original geometric mosaic floor has survived. Here we see guilloche interwoven squares that give life to eight-pointed stars which in turn create octagons. These octagons are the visual high point of the floor and hold their own individual design. Perhaps the most decorative is the open flower design as it prepares to blossom. The spaces in between the interwoven squares have also produced eight small white and black triangles. The remainder of the mosaic is filled by squares and rhombic shapes which are visually supported by a dentil design.

RAPE OF THE SABINE WOMEN (22)

This rectangular room, close to the service rooms, was assumed, due to the laying of a figurative mosaic, to function as a bedroom for visiting guests. The depicted scenes are much damaged while the lower part of this rooms’ walls reveal the remains of frescoes with geometric designs.
This figurative mosaic is read as being a scene from Roman mythology which is known as The Rape of the Sabine Women. Early in the history of Rome, Romulus and his male entourage were seeking wives. They were consequently rebuffed by the inhabitants of the neighbouring villages and settlements. So slyly they organized a festival of Neptune (the Roman God of seas and water) and all were invited. During the festival, perhaps under the cover of darkness, many young women were spirited away to Rome. The myth ends by informing us that the women found happiness in Rome and refused to return to their homes.

What is left of this mosaic tantalizes my imagination, for I feel that this scene transfers to me a sense of fear and confusion. The woman on the top left hand side, frantically waves her scarf/veil, desperate for help and hopes to attract somebody’s attention. On the far right another woman leaning away to her right, struggles to ward off her abductor. At the bottom left hand side a man looking back is presumably dragging away an unseen woman, while next to him are the possible remains of a man sweeping up and carrying away a woman. All of the characters portrayed in this mosaic are smartly attired with designs shown on the shoulder pads, cuffs and bottoms of the men’s tunics. Accessories also adorn the ladies. The one being carried away seems to be wearing an ankle bracelet, while the one (top left) wears a double row necklace.

A flood of disappointment wells up inside of me for once again I have been denied from viewing a complete high class work of art.

ROOM OF THE LOST MOSAIC (23)

This room was an antechamber serving as an entryway into the main guest room as described above. Unfortunately its mosaic floor has not survived. Also this area could have been utilised as a waiting room if the person using the guest room was not yet ready to receive the visitor.

ROOM OF THE FOUR SEASONS (24)

This room’s main function was to be used as an antechamber, probably by important visitors on official business or alternatively by social family guests.

MOSAIC BORDER

The mosaic floor is exceptionally well preserved and a geometric design, created with the use of diagonal lines from a collection of rhombi and stars, is bound together by a spider web of guilloche. All of the created hexagons have at their centre medallions some of which are encased in a polychrome two pattern band of elongated right angles. Four of the medallions feature busts representing the four seasons of the year.

They are set in a background of off-white tesserae and enclosed within a black/grey circle which helps to highlight their appearance. Spring seems to be of a delicate young woman with roses in her hair, while summer is shown as a healthy young man crowned with wheat ears. A woman whose hair is laced with grapes is autumn and a man with a stern expression on his face with his head covered by leaves and a warming cloak hanging from his left shoulder depicts winter. Some of the remaining medallions show birds/fowl pecking at foliage and varying species of swimming fish, while others display open flower designs encased in a circle of pointed peaks and troughs. On the outer border we look down on a fascinating and unusual tower and cube design.

If we look with a keen eye at the busts of spring and autumn their faces, as do their clothes, seem extremely similar. Also the face of summer smiles and he looks healthy and content, while with winter the face is pensive and drawn.

THE ROOM OF THE FISHING CUPIDS (25)

This spacious square room is entered through the room of the Four Seasons and assumed to have been furnished as a bedroom. The room’s intricate and complex mosaic floor can have a mesmerizing effect on our eyes but, if we can then engage our imagination to compose a composition of the ceiling and match that to what is left of the frescoes, a high status environment is before us.

Joyously, most of this mosaic has survived and its main theme is fishing, performed with the help of four richly decorated small boats. Each of the vessels is manned by three fishermen depicted here by cupids. (At Bignor Roman Villa there is a frieze of cupids dressed as gladiators.) If we cast our eyes to just below the fishing boat at the top right hand side of the mosaic, we see a naked cupid holding on to the rear of a dolphin. It is well known that dolphins have an affinity to humans, so perhaps what we are viewing here is the dolphins and the cupids working together. The dolphins round up the fish into shoals to feed, while the cupids ‘muscle-in’ to catch some for themselves.

The cupids in the fishing boats, top left and bottom left, are fishing together by sharing a long net cast between their vessels and are seen hauling in their catch. A cupid seen in the sea below the top boat helps to drive the fish into the net. In the top right hand side a cupid wearing a loin cloth is successfully spearing fish with the aid of a harpoon. The one next to him is presumably fishing with a hoop net and then passing the fish on to the third cupid who is seen reaching up with his right hand to receive them. He would then pack the fish into a basket. In the boat below a cupid is fishing with a rod and line, while the one to the far right is releasing fish that have been caught by using a trap. The cupid bending down packs them into a basket. All seem to be wearing decorative neck, arm and wrist bands.

When the fishing ceased and with the catch packed away, the boats made their way to the large imposing villa in the background to unload. This activity could have taken place at the villa’s exedra, the large semi-circular recess as noticed in the mosaic. If we now remove our eyes from this splendid mosaic and look up at the lower parts of the walls, stucco and frescoes are to be seen. The frescoes are of geometric design with rectangular panels painted in red and yellow and contain what appears to be the lower half of human figures. Unfortunately the rest has not survived.

THE ROOM OF THE SMALL HUNT (26)

This room is rectangular and is also located in the northern part of the peristyle. It was probably another area available for accommodating guests and used as their dining room, which could have been supported by two service rooms close by. The thought has entered my mind that considering hunting was a male pursuit, this could have been a gentlemen-only room. A place where the proprietor of the villa and his male guests could have pursued varying male pleasures.

THE MOSAIC BORDER

This mosaic floor I believe was laid in homage to Diana the Goddess of Hunting, whose festival of celebration was held on the 13^th of August. The setting of the villa was such that the surrounding countryside would have inspired many of the hunting scenes that are on view within this floor. The most significant part of the presentation is just below a portrayal of two scenes of hunting dogs which show, on the left hand side, two fierce looking dogs being controlled by a figure wearing a yellow tunic. His compatriot on the right, holding a staff, has already released his three dogs. Below them a statuette of the Goddess is displayed on a tall base, high up between two trees. From here she looks down onto an altar where she views offerings being made to her by a figure wearing a red tunic. In his left hand he holds a plate, from which his right hand deposits meat onto the smoking altar. If we return our eyes to the statue of Diana, we notice that in her left hand she holds a bow and over her right shoulder is a quiver full of arrows. Seemingly, her right hand is about to pull an arrow from the quiver. To her left and right a wild boar and a hare/rabbit await their turn to be part of the ceremony.

Below, and perhaps after the hunting party had finished paying their respects to the Goddess, they all relax on a circular elongated cushion in readiness for a feast. A huge piece of meat has been set before them on a round table supported by stones, while a slave offers up a glass of wine and another delves into a basket. The man dressed in red takes pride of place at the table and all of the hunters are protected from the sun by a red canopy which has been hung between two trees. Close to the red canopy, hanging from a branch in the tree, is a hunting net and at the bottom left of this mosaic we are shown how it was used, for three stags in panic are chased by two horsemen into the pegged-out net.

Other hunting activities are to be seen, although, I believe, the most revealing and detailed creation is to be viewed on the bottom right hand side. Once again the figure dressed in the red tunic is most prominent. He is portrayed as the hero as he kills a huge muscular boar with a spear and saves the life of a fellow hunting companion, who has been floored by the beast which has gored his left thigh. The fierce hunting dogs have failed to help as has the figure above, as he tries desperately to throw a boulder on to the head of the rampant animal. The man next to him, in the green tunic, cannot help for he looks perplexed and in a state of shock. In the background is, possibly, a hunting lodge where the injured hunter may have been taken.

The figure in red is without doubt the most important person in this mosaic, a man of the highest rank and authority and the owner of this villa. His hunting friends would have been individuals of wealth and standing and it is possible that they financed this mosaic in recognition and gratitude for his friendship and generosity.

The mosaic is encased by a flowing border design of a double row of bells with central spindles in yellow. Beyond this and held between off white tesserae is a surrounding double row band of black tesserae. This in turn is framed by guilloche which is contained in a dentil pattern. The walls still retain traces of frescoes and I find it difficult to leave this mesmerising room for, as I retreat, I notice that all of the characters have their feet and legs protected by sturdy boots and thick below-the-knee stockings.

THE ROOM OF THE OCTAGON MOSAIC (27)

This area was probably a service room used in relation to the guest rooms on the north side of the peristyle. It holds a simple but eye-catching geometric design constructed with green, red and black tesserae. All the circles are connected together, both top and bottom, by shields with similar central motifs which then define octagons with gentle concave sides.

A roaming guilloche binds the whole mosaic together, while inside the octagons rest laurel garlands. Within each garland there are circle motifs of stylised four or six petal flowers or crossed squares. On some parts of the mosaic a lack of available space allows only half of the central design to appear. The mosaic is bordered by a double flowing shallow arch design.

THE ROOM OF THE CHEQUERED MOSAIC (28)

This room is at the back of the previous one and also serviced the close-by guest rooms. The mosaic is a multi-coloured geometric chequerboard design divided in 5x5 squares. It is elegantly crafted and supported by the mosaicist’s generous use of colour. Every second square contains a design with a smaller square diagonally inserted. Outside these smaller squares and in the four corners a pelta (a small shield) motif is seen.

THE BORDER OF THE OCTAGON MOSAIC

THE ENTRANCE BETWEEN THE TWO SERVICE ROOMS

The smaller diagonal squares hold a reddish wave pattern and within this are smaller third squares containing stylised flower motifs. Alternate squares are dressed with guilloche, which then surround an inner square. Beyond a double fillet of black tesserae, the inner third squares contain a petal flower design. Another holds a swastika and within its four arcs are individual motifs where the coloured designs are reversed. Unfortunately, many of the guilloche squares have lost their central motifs. The outer border of the mosaic is sympathetically coloured to tone in with the main design.

THE CORRIDOR OF THE GREAT HUNT (29)

The corridor of the great hunt is about 60 metres in length and leads to the owner (Dominus) and his families’ suite of rooms. It bypasses the basilica where more of the official business of the villa would have transpired. The corridor has apses at both ends and is located between the peristyle to the west and the basilica and private rooms to the east. A gallery of eight columns with Corinthian capitals separate the corridor from the peristyle.

As I view this corridor I become enchanted and slowly overwhelmed, for this mosaic is unique and unparalleled in any known roman building yet discovered, not only for its astonishing length, but for the beauty of its content and the story that it portrays.

Although in some areas the mosaic is damaged, it is surprisingly well preserved and large parts are practically intact, although there has been some subsidence along its southern part. It seems that the two apses are symbolic of the eastern and western limits of the geographical map of the then known Roman Empire which was populated by a wide variety of fierce and ferocious wild beasts. The political and social structure of the Roman hierarchy, plus the demands of the empire’s citizens for entertainment, sealed the fate for hundreds and thousands of these magnificent and proud animals.

History tells us that the Roman Emperor Titus, son of Vespasian, inaugurated the colosseum with a hundred days of spectacle in which 5,000 wild animals were slaughtered. Other ambitious Roman politicians would have tried to enhance their careers by putting on blood sports and wild animal shows. Criminals would have suffered execution by being mauled to death.

Because of the vast amount of exotic animals required, it would have created a lucrative cottage industry in the Roman Provinces, stretching from the most distant parts both to the east and west of the empire. It was a well organised operation administered by the Roman military with the support of slaves and local hunters from the surrounding villages. The hunt starts at both ends of the corridor, where there are images of places at the extremes of the Roman Empire with Africa represented on the left hand side.

Africa at this period in time had five Roman Provinces. Mauritania (Western Africa), Numidia (north of the Sahara), Byzacena (Tunisia), Tripolitania (Libya) and Proconsular Africa. The mosaic in the apse is unfortunately damaged, although the remains of a female figure is noticed. Perhaps she wears the national dress of one of the above provinces. Her outfit is smartly embroidered and over her shoulder a shawl is held together by a large expensive looking broach. Further down is a possible belt which is decorated with a row of precious stones? Close by are the visible remains of a brown bear and a panther.

Within the left hand side of this expressive composition we view the capture of exotic wild animals from the five named provinces. Noticed are lions, panthers/leopards wild horses, elegant antelopes and boars. In the background is the African landscape showing numerous trees, including palms, within a mixture of village houses and arcaded buildings.

Just beneath the colourful border of the mosaic we see a soldier being forced to the ground by a leopard/panther. The animal is leaking blood from a wound caused by a spear. Next to that there is a leopard which has bounded on to the back of an antelope. Moving on, a snarling beast which has killed an antelope looks back at two approaching soldiers. The soldiers are depicted carrying protective shields and wearing long cloaks. The figure on the left, with a swastika motif visible on the bottom of his tunic, points in the direction of their struggling comrade. In the context of the hunt the swastika (four-legged) could perhaps be symbolic, drawing in good fortune from the north, east, south and west.

Prior to this, seemingly in a different province, set in a vast open plain environment with scrubland in the background, leopard hunters equipped with spears form an impenetrable wall with their shields. Another hunter tries to entice the beasts closer with an animal carcass. Presumably this results in the leopards being surrounded, restrained and captured with the use of nets. But, the figure in control of the bait may be ready to trigger a trapdoor as the beast grabs the meat; the leopard, consequently, falls into a deep pit.

PART OF THE MOSAIC BORDER

The complexity of this mosaic corridor is dazzling. Lions are being stalked, wild horses are gathered up and below is a scene where the captured animals are being transported in a cart drawn by two oxen. A soldier helps by pushing the back of the cart, while another on horseback supervises the operation. Finally we see the animals boarding a ship, possibly at the port at Carthage, for in the background are buildings in the classical style. Our eyes now begin to explore a busy and expressive scene as a slave has engaged the wrath of a centurion. Two ostriches are assisted up the ramp, following in the wake of a large antelope which has the attention of three slaves. The sea seems calm and abounds with fish. Other slaves await their turn to load their captured animals. A wild boar, trussed up in a red net which is secured to a pole, is noticed, while behind them two more slaves share the weight of a large box stabilised by a pole. On board the ship more slaves oversee the loading procedure and, with a keen eye, the padlocks that keep the animals secure in their cages can be seen. From here the live cargo would sail to the port at Ostia and then on to Rome.

If we turn our eyes to the right hand side of the ship we see the cargo being unloaded in Italy. This part of the central scene is close to the entrance of the basilica where four smartly attired slaves, wearing similar tunics, are unloading a large heavy box, as another slave escorts an ostrich down the ramp.

Now we turn our attention more to the right and look towards Egypt.

We continue to view a never ending swirling mass of colourful movement and activity, as a rhinoceros has fallen victim to the hunt. It is being dragged out of the marshy swamp by the use of ropes. Being a beast of strength it has the attention of five slaves. Three pull hard trying to remove it from its sticky clinging environment, while the other two demonstrate encouragement. Seen close by a hippopotamus is squelching in the mire.

Many animals are being led, pulled and bullied towards the awaiting ship at the port at Alexandria. Noticed is a muzzled muscular tiger, a graceful antelope, a buffalo and a protesting elephant. Above are two men, one holds the reins of a horse while the other controls, seemingly, an Arabian single hump camel. These camels would have proven their worth as pack animals for the Roman military. Also to be viewed is a scene of a lion hunt where one of the beasts has been speared by a lance and attacks a soldier who has been forced to the ground.

THE PERSONIFICATION OF INDIA

Within the apse on the far right is a personification of India. The dark skinned woman looks pensive and sad, as does the tiger and elephant. The woman has long hair clinging to both shoulders that is held in place by a silver band across the top of her head. Her forehead, between her eyes, is decorated by a single downward line of red dye. Perhaps she is of aristocratic birth for gold jewellery dresses her neck and arms. An elephant tusk rests between her left hand and arm while, interestingly, her right hand grips the near top of a spice tree and hanging from the branch, beyond her left shoulder, are strips of coloured fabrics. I feel that this part of the apse is symbolic in telling us that the Roman Empire, after the establishment of Roman Egypt, initiated trade with India regarding spices, silk/cloth and ivory along the ‘silk-road’ and Indian Ocean. Because of the vast distance between India and Rome, to have imported exotic wild animals from India would have perpetuated much expense and organization.

On the left hand side, above the elephant, is the mythical bird the phoenix, which has thrown itself into the flames of its burning nest only to be reborn from the smouldering ashes in the near future. There are a range of interpretations regarding this action which include the representation of the victory of life over death and therefore immortality. The significance here could be that India itself would always be immortal during this time in its history because of its ability to supply the then known world with its many sought after luxuries.

TIGRESS VIEWING HER REFLECTION

Returning to the main part of the corridor, two other scenes engage our imagination. Noticed is a soldier galloping in haste up the gangplank of an awaiting ship. Apparently he has stolen a number of tiger cubs and to distract the pursuing tigress he has dropped a glass ball. We observe the tigress viewing her reflection in the ball and, believing it to be one of her cubs, stops her pursuit to rescue it, consequently her family is lost. To the rear of the desperate and despairing tigress is a griffin, perched on a cage, seemingly attracted by a forlorn human face, peering out from beyond the bars and witnessing the unfolding collective endeavours of soldiers and their slaves. The griffin with the body, tail and back legs of a lion and the head and wings of an eagle also possessed talons as its front feet. It was recognised as the king of both beasts and birds. The symbolism here is that the might of the Roman Empires civilisation dominates all things including nature, for the griffin had become a helpless spectator.

The skilful hands of the mosaicist portray the Roman Military as heroes, all are recognised by their red belts. Not only do they fight for the empire and keep Rome safe, they also put their lives at risk by stalking and capturing dangerous wild beasts for the civil population to enjoy the spectacle of the animals’ deaths in the Colosseum and other amphitheatres. But, of course, the operation regarding animal trafficking was far more sophisticated than what we see before us; injured and wounded animals would have probably been worthless. The truth is within this corridor; it is elusive, but subtly illustrated by the mosaicist. First we see the local hunters holding their protective shields as they capture leopards in a pit. Snaring animals in this way was popular and successful, as was the staking out of nets, while blazing torches would have been used to round-up the beasts and lure them into pits. The imperial army would possibly have helped with their capture in this manner rather than hunt them as seen in the corridor. Another revealing scene is located in the upper central part of the corridor where a group of three men have gathered. The middle figure seems to be the most visual for he wears a small round cap and holds out from his right hand a long rod which has a mushroom shaped handle. All three are probably from the military elite with the central figure being of senior rank and responsible for a smooth conclusion to the activities. It appears that all three are dressed in tunics with decorated cloaks tied over their right shoulders. Seemingly, at least, two of the cloaks are of ankle length and have a swastika pattern on the bottom. Perhaps the figure on the left held the responsibility to deal with the finance of paying the animal traffickers and the figure on the right was responsible for assigning the cargo to the various amphitheatres and arenas.

Further to the right and close to the bottom of the mosaic is another alluring scene. A richly attired bearded figure looks out upon the complexity of the hunt and he is seemingly protected by two soldiers bearing shields. He wears a flat cylindrical hat and in his right hand a staff is noticed. It has been suggested that he is the Emperor Maximian Heraclius. It is certainly possible that this villa was one of his ‘homes’ that he would have used within his realm, for it was worthy of such a man with its unbounded luxury and magnificence. Alternatively, this illustration could be of a local wealthy politically aspiring aristocrat whose money may be funding this hunt. His ambition would be to use some of the animals for public entertainment and boost his popularity. Whoever he may have been, having bodyguards suggests he was a person of some importance. Interestingly, on the shoulder of the bodyguard behind him a motif of an ivy leaf is noticeable. As ivy leaves are a recurring element within the mosaics at this villa, is this a silent and unsolvable clue?

Thick bands of off white and black tesserae separate the mosaic from its main border which is topped by a double row of black tesserae. But then, as I view below the black tesserae, I feel that my eyes are becoming intoxicated by the rainbow of colours that are set before me. And as I try to decipher its design, the more my mind is perplexed and then seduced by its complexity. I cannot describe it, I can only stand, look down and enjoy it.

THE PANELLED MOSAIC ROOM (30)

This service room is located between the peristyle and the room displaying the slender girls wearing bikinis. The walls of this antechamber held panels framed by bands of yellow and red. At the base of all of them was an individual band of yellow, while bands of both colours rise up vertically from this base. One panel encases a stand-alone figure.

The floor is decorated with a geometric mosaic which is bordered on its outside by bands of black and then white tesserae. A single continuing strand of guilloche flows around the complete mosaic boosting the visual impact and style of the border. The mosaic contains 66 squares which are separated by vertical and horizontal white bands. Within these bands the hands of the mosaicist have constructed smaller squares by using point to point black triangles, laid alternately, which then create white squares. At the centre of these a small white cross is noticed, formed by four small separate triangles in black. A band of Z patterned right-angles enclose the motifs in all of the large squares within the mosaic. Stylized flowers are seen formed by the use of four triangles, as do spindles arranged like the petals of flowers. Others contain poised squares which have central crosses.

THE ROOM OF THE BIKINI GIRLS (31)

This room is located between the peristyle, the corridor of the great hunt and the hall of Orpheus. It is entered from the peristyle and then through the antechamber. The room is rectangular with an eye catching figured mosaic floor. When human eyes once again fell upon this work of art, it was known as the chamber of the ten maidens.

The mosaic presents to us ten, young, slim and athletic looking women although much of one has been lost. Most are engaged in Olympic style disciplines. Weight lifting, discus throwing and running activities are noticed in the top half of the mosaic. In the bottom half, and to the right, ball games are represented. The young athlete second from the left is holding a spoked wheel; perhaps this was used in a contest of skill which involved rolling it along the ground and controlling it with the stick. This could have been a team game, or a race over a set distance with a number of individual competitors. Possibly, these ladies’ sporting events were held locally or within the villa grounds. The scene at the bottom is certainly indicative that there was a competition of some sort. The maiden, first on the left and draped in a golden gown, moves with hast to present the winning athlete a rose crown and a palm leave. Would this room have been for ladies only and perhaps their gymnasium?

On viewing the top five athletes again, I notice that the one holding the discus seems to be wearing items of body decorations around her neck, upper and lower arms and ankles. If these are expensive pieces of jewellery, she may well be associated with the resident family of the villa, perhaps a daughter.

MOSAIC REMAINS FROM BENEATH THE BIKINI GIRLS

In the south east corner a small area of the original mosaic floor has been revealed. It is of geometric design, which suggests, that this room was formerly a service area. The mosaic would been a collection of large eight pointed stars, each star formed by two intertwined squares. The guilloche within them is of red and grey colours, as is the garland which contains a flower motif at its centre. The border blends well with the mosaic, for that too is also red and grey and perhaps we see squares in perspective at the top, and on the side a row of tangent cuboids. The border for the later mosaic consists of bands of alternating off-white and black tesserae supported by a row of tangent isosceles triangles in black.

DIAETA OF ORPHEUS (32)

This rectangular room 10m x 8m, and perhaps a small basilica, is located on the south side of the peristyle close to the previous room. Two grand marble columns mark the entrance from the peristyle. On entry, my eyes sweep hungrily around the room while my imagination tingles with excitement.

Within the apse is the base for the statue of Apollo, the mythological father of Orpheus. His marble torso, now on display, was discovered during the excavations and subsequently returned to its original location. Within the centre of the room is the basin of a square shaped fountain. Its murmuring and gurgling would have enlivened this room, which would have had the same soothing reaction on human ears as Orpheus had on the animals, when playing his bewitching music on his lyre.

The musician, or what is left of him, sits upon a stone under a tree that spreads out into the apse. Orpheus is clad in a crimson cloak and is wearing what looks like red shoes. An inquisitive fox creeps cautiously up close to him as the animals become enchanted by his melodies. It seems that the larger animals are just arriving and close to the entrance of the room we see a bear, horse, rhinoceroses, buffalo, lion and a tiger. The smaller land animals seem to be in the centre of the room while the birds, including a phoenix, are towards the apse.

THE PHOENIX

Between the lizard and the camel is the closed tail (train) of a peacock and the shadowy reflection of its elaborate and iridescent eyespots is shown beneath it. The mosaicist finishes his creation with a generous and continuing border of laurel wreaths.

As this room could be entered from the peristyle, it was probably open for public use as a peaceful and relaxing place for leisure activities, including music.

SMALL COURT (33)

This connected the hall of the Big Game Hunt and the families’ private apartments with the Triclinium. It would have been decorated with a mosaic threshold, spiral columns and shrines. This court would have also permitted access to the inner peristyle and xystus (a covered portico).

THE CORRIDOR LINKING THE SQUARE PERISTYLE AND XYSTUS (34)

Close to the apsis of the xystus a corridor connects the square shaped peristyle, from its south west corner, with the triclinium. It is noticed that the threshold of the peristyle is decorated with a mosaic cantharus with volutes of acanthus. The rest of the mosaic floor contained volutes of small birds and the busts of larger animals such as tigers, bears and horses. Invited guests would have used this corridor to access the triclinium while the owner and his family would have entered via the small court.

THE KITCHEN (35)

This room had a beaten earth floor with two small walls projecting from the wall of the peristyle which could have formed a hearth. Here food could have been prepared and cooked for receptions in the triclinium. The uncovered area behind the xystus would have given access for the servants to both the portico and the triclinium.

THE ROOMS OF THE GRAPE-HARVESTING CUPIDS (36)

These three rooms possibly had duel purposes, being service rooms and entertaining areas relating to the activities that took place during long summer evenings in the open courtyard of the xystus. The rooms all had mosaic floors depicting baby cupids growing, harvesting and pressing grapes to make wine. The room on the left hand side, which portrayed the cultivation of the grapes, is all but lost, and is now being used as a storeroom for the remains of the mosaic discovered beneath the bikini girls in room 31.

The room to the right shows the harvest. A cupid passes down a bunch of grapes to another cupid who has scaled a ladder. In the central room the baby cupids are carrying and also pressing the grapes. Part of the mosaic shows a cupid supporting a container full of grapes with his right hand, which sits precariously upon his shoulder. In the room to the right is a medallion of the god of wine, festivals and pleasures. The bearded Dionysus, son of Zeus and the Princess of Thebes, is wearing a crown of ivy leaves and holds a thyrsus (pinecone tipped staff).

This was also a powerful wand with which he could destroy all who opposed his cult and the freedom that this represented. The medallion, although part of the bottom left is lost, is encased by a rows of red and black tesserae. Beyond these is a circle of black dentils set in an off-white background. All is surrounded with a substantial red wave design that gives the medallion a strong visual perspective.

THE ELLIPTICAL PERISTYLE (XYSTUS) (37)

This ovoid space is located to the south of the main villa, which together with the triclinium forms a separate part of the villa and is approximately 30x22m in area. It is open at its centre with a portico on its north, east and south sides. We see on the west side an apse with three niches which would have once held marble statues, protected in antiquity by a semi-dome. On the east side lies the entrance to the triclinium. Looking along the north and south side, there nestles groups of three small rooms.

The open-air internal court had a central fountain and was paved with slabs of marble. Along the edge of the portico, some of which remains, was a polychrome mosaic constructed in a zig-zag pattern design. The portico extends along three sides of the peristyle creating a horseshoe shape and under our feet are the remains of its mosaic. We see numerous animal heads within a whirling acanthus scroll of lions, leopards, bears, antelopes, horses, geese and ducks. And still visible at the base of the original wall, are fragments of figured frescoes.

I let my eyelids droop and try to imagine this delightful setting on a balmy summer evening. Around the circumference of this open space many couches have been set in a u-shape with a table at their centres. The central fountain burbles up and I hear the soothing patter of its cascading water. This is accompanied by the sound of music, song and dance while the hosts and their guests recline on soft pillows and cushions. They feast and drink strong wine. Eventually the courtesans are summoned and they dance seductively in their garments of airy delicacy. Then, when the social atmosphere is at a pinnacle, these alluring and erotic courtesans, sophisticated in the art of love-making, would engage in sexual intimacy with guests in the three rooms of the grape picking cupids. But of course, during that period in history, we have to remember that this was not illegal, nor were Roman men of high social status stigmatized for engaging with the courtesans.

THE ROOMS OF THE FISHING CUPIDS (38)

These three small rooms to the south of the peristyle were probably service areas. Perhaps they were also used as changing apartments for the occasional visits of the invited courtesans. Only a few small areas of the original mosaic floors have survived the passing of the centuries, with the floor of the room on the far right completely lost.

The remaining fragments seem to depict young male cupids in boats, busy fishing.

On both sides of the peristyle it was the centre room that gave access to the other two. These six rooms were, in the past, covered by sand, as the area is not protected by a roof, so they have not always been visible to visitors.

Just before the entrance to the triclinium, on the left hand side, is a basin of a long lost fountain, although it is probable that in order to give the entrance symmetry, it was replicated on the right hand side.

THE TRIPLE APSED TRICLINIUM (39)

This was a monumental dining room and is square in shape being 12m x 12m. It could be entered on the west side from the elliptical peristyle which was marked by two colourful marble columns. Within the room are three large apses which are on its north, east and south sides. Each is separated from the central area by two more columns. At the back of all the apses were pedestals which in antiquity would have displayed statues. This room would have been used for pleasurable banquets and other social activities which included official business.

The inner floor space of the triclinium was about 250sq m and carpeted with engaging and spectacular mosaic insights from stories of Greek mythology. The creative hands of the mosaicists show us colourful and absorbing scenes where the faces of the characters vividly express their pain, sadness and misery.

THE GIGANTOMACHY

As our eyes sweep across the floor of the central apse we become witnesses to an agonising scene from the Gigantomachy. Five giants try desperately to remove from their writhing bodies the poison arrows fired by the bow of Hercules. Four of the giants attempt this with the aid of their serpent feet. These arrows were poisonous for they had been laced with the blood of Hydra of Lerna, the serpentine water monster, whose blood was so virulent that even its scent was deadly.

LYCURGUS AND AMBROSIA

The mosaic before us helps tell the divine battle from Greek mythology which was fought between the Giants and the Olympian Gods for the supremacy of the cosmos. These Giants were the offspring of a union between Gaia, the ancestral mother of all life, and her consort Uranus, father of the sky. The myth tells us that the Giants assaulted heaven, but, unknown to them the Gods, long ago, had received a prediction of the future (an oracle) which declared that the Giants could only be defeated with the help of a mortal. Well, as Hercules was the son of the God Zeus and the mortal Alcmene, the Giants’ fate was sealed. Zeus struck them down with his thunderbolts and Hercules (from the Greek Herakles) finished them off with his poison arrows.

THE TWELVE LABOURS OF HERCULES

One of the final acts was when the God Athena cast a mountain upon the seated Giant (Enceladus?). This mountain was to become known as the Island of Sicily. Perhaps all the Giants lie buried under numerous other mountains and occasionally their presence is felt by volcanic activity and earthquakes.

HESIONE AND ENDYMION

Between the main room and this apse is a narrow mosaic passage separated from the 12 labours of Hercules by a thin line of black tesserae. Here my hungry eyes feed upon two more famous characters from mythology. Hesione, a Trojan princess and the daughter of King Ladmedon, has been tied to a rock close to the sea shore. She is going to be sacrificed to a grotesque sea serpent sent by the sea god Poseidon who was taking revenge on Ladmedon. He had refused to pay what he owed the god for the building of Troy’s defensive walls. Hercules negotiates a deal with the king for the rescue of his daughter and consequently slays the serpent with a single arrow. A scantily dressed Hesione points her finger thankfully towards the monster that now lies dead at her feet. Either side of the pillars and hiding in the foliage are small serpents, ready to witness the unfolding drama.

As the dusk is replaced by the coming of the night and the rising of the moon, we see Endymion, a handsome Aeolian shepherd taking up a provocative pose. He beckons up to Selene, the Titan Goddess of the moon, to join him on his bed for some love making as she carries the moon across the night sky in her chariot. Selene had already fallen passionately in love with this mortal man and had asked his father, Zeus, to grant him eternal youth so they could forever be together. Close by is a dog, Endymion’s guardian and companion, who seems to be sniffing the ground where an abandon axe has apparently attracted its attention.

In the south apse is a mosaic showing the myth of Lycurgus and Ambrosia. This myth reveals the victory of the Dionysian power against the King of Thrace, Lycurgus. The king, furious that Bacchus and his entourage have, without his permission, travelled through his kingdom educating the population in the art of wine making, seeks to take revenge. As we view this floor the visual drama rapidly unfolds. Lycurgus, muscular and naked, except for his feet, is poised to strike the maenad Ambrosia a fatal blow. But his attention is suddenly diverted by another maenad who touches him on his right shoulder and threatens him with a raised thyrus. A satyr joins the fray by encouraging one of the cult’s sacred leopards to attack the king. Ambrosia in her anguish begs Mother Earth to rescue her and in response Ambrosia begins her transformation into a vine. The vine then starts to entwine King Lycurgus who is eventually strangled by it. Visually, and close to the lower part of the depiction, the mosaicist confirms that this is a vine by adding winged cupids that start to harvest the ripe grapes.

THE GOLDEN APPLES ARE SEEN IN THE TREE

Within the north apse of this triclinium, a triumphant Hercules stares out at us as we view his coronation in Olympus where he is now accepted by the Gods as their equal. This mosaic, now much fragmented by the shadowy world of the past, still holds enough to engage us with another Herculean myth.

THE LIFE AND LABOURS OF HERCULES

Eurystheus, a cousin of Hercules and the King of Mycenae, tells the hero that he has another mission. His eleventh labour is to steal the golden apples from a grove tended by the Hesperides. These were the nymphs of the evening and golden light of sunset who had been entrusted with the care of a tree, bearing golden apples, which had been presented to the Goddess Hera by Gaia, on her wedding day. These nymphs were assisted by a hundred-headed guardian dragon. After many weeks of travel through Greece, Libya and Egypt, a journey which was littered with engaging adventures, Hercules eventually locates the gardens. Historians in antiquity offer up the suggestion that the gardens were near to Tartessos, just south of the Iberian Peninsula.

One of Hercules encounters during this travel was when he released the Titan Prometheus from the chains that bound him to a rock, a punishment issued down by Zeus. In gratitude, Prometheus advised Hercules to seek out the help of his brother Atlas in his quest to steal the golden apples, before entering the apple grove. On meeting Atlas he discovered that he too had the burden of a divine punishment. Atlas had tried to lead a revolt against the Gods and was cursed forever to carry the world upon his shoulders. The Titan agrees to steal the apples if Hercules takes the weight of the world on to his shoulders while he is gone. In due course Atlas returns with the apples but refuses to take back the burden of supporting the weight of the world, for he himself would deliver the prize to King Eurystheus. In conversation Hercules asks Atlas just to take the world back while he makes the shoulders of his cloak more comfortable. Foolishly Atlas does as asked and Hercules then makes off with the golden apples.

Now, looking again at the mosaic floor, the golden apples can be seen hanging from the branches of a tree, behind the bearded figure of Hercules. He appears weary and is depicted naked except for a leopard skin which is knotted upon this chest. The hero has been crowned with a laurel wreath, a symbol of victory, probably placed there by his father, Zeus. The Goddess Athena, sometime later, returns the golden apples to the Hesperides.

At the entrance to this apse a smaller mosaic panel is noticed which shows two scenes of metamorphosis. On the left, we see the beautiful naiad Daphne, as she is beginning to take the form of a laurel tree. She looks sad and exhausted by Apollo’s constant and relenting pursuit of her, for he has been shot by Cupid’s arrow which is filled with uncontrollable desire. In desperation Daphne pleads to mother earth, Gaia, to help her, who then transforms her into a laurel tree. Apollo, with his heart broken, and overcome with grief, proclaims the laurel tree to be forever sacred.

Looking to the right of this mosaic panel, we view the handsome Cyparissus, a mortal youth and one of Apollo’s lovers, as he transforms into a cypress tree. The young man has accidentally mortally wounded his pet stag, in a forest, with a misplaced arrow. Cyparissus, consumed by grief, remorse and guilt prays to Apollo to be able to mourn forever as he throws himself upon the dying stag. Apollo on viewing this heart-wrenching scene decides to turn the grieving youth into a cypress tree, whose sap forms droplets like tears, on its trunk. Consequently the cypress tree becomes a classical symbol of mourning.

In the central room, sadly, about half of the mosaic floor has perished, but what remains relates to the Twelve Labours of Hercules. Within the mosaic are depicted numerous men and animals, although Hercules himself is absent. From what is set before us several of the Labours can be recognised.

In Greek mythology Hercules, on his return to Thebes after several years away, discovers that King Creon has been murdered by an Euboean, named Lycus, who is about to execute Hercules’ wife and children. Consequently Hercules kills Lycus. This murder gives Hera, the Olympian Queen of the Gods, who still held a long-term grudge against her husband Zeus and father of Hercules, opportunity to gain revenge. Zeus had numerous affairs, one of which resulted in the birth of the bastard child Hercules from the womb of the mortal Alcmene. Venting her revenge, Hera brings a fit of madness upon Hercules and, as this evil dark cloud descends, he kills his wife and their children. As normality returns, Hercules is horrified by the scene of death before him. He decides to walk from Thebes to Delphi to seek advice from the Pythian Oracle. The Pythia pronounces to him that the only way to atone for his murderous actions is to ask the King of Tiryns, Eurystheus, to set him ten trials of his strength and courage. Humiliated, Hercules turns to leave, but the Pythia calls out to him that if he is successful in the ten labours he would achieve immortality.

Eventually Hercules had to complete not ten labours but twelve. The first was to fulfil King Eurystheus’ demand that Hercules delivers to him the pelt of the Nemean lion. In this mosaic the dead lion can be seen in the upper middle of the floor.

This quest starts to unfold when, during his journey to Nemea, Hercules stays the night in the hut of a peasant named Molorchus who, in the morning, takes the hero to the beginning of the long path which would eventually lead to the lion’s cave. After fifteen more days of travel the lion’s roars guide Hercules to its lair, a cave with two entrances in a gorge near the cities of Mycenae and Corinth. Blocking one entrance by heaving up a huge rock he entered the cave through the other. After failing to kill the lion with an arrow Hercules, in the fearful darkness of the cave, strangled the beast with his bare hands. Joyfully the local peasants were now free to cultivate their fields without fear and Hercules, carrying the dead lion over his shoulders, delivered it to the feet of King Eurystheus. Consequently Hera rewarded the lion’s vain attempt to defy Hercules by setting it as the stars in the heavens known as the constellation Leo.

Hercules’ second labour was to confront the Lernaean Hydra, a venomous beast whose blood and breath were poisonous. In the mosaic she is noticed in the upper left quadrant in the form of a serpent with a woman’s head, whose hair has been replaced by slithering snakes.

King Eurystheus was not only terrified by Hercules’ physical persona, but was also feeling angry and vindictive that he had succeeded with his first labour. So he ordered him to seek out and kill the half-sister of the Nemean lion, Hydra of Lerna, who Hera had raised specifically just to kill Hercules. Hercules’ father Zeus had been responsible for the death of Hydra’s father Typhon, a monstrous and deadly giant who now laid crushed under Mount Etna, but still, occasionally, breathed out his fiery raging temper.

Hercules left Tiryns wearing the pelt of the Nemean Lion and utilised its scalp as a hood to protect his head. He was accompanied on his quest by his nephew Iolaus, a Theban, the son of Iphicles and Automedusa. He acted as a charioteer and companion, although the two men were probably lovers. The vile Hydra was found inhabiting a former fresh-water pool at Lerna. This water had once been crystal clear and the only source of clean water for the local people. Sadly, it had now been contaminated by the nauseating and loathsome Hydra. The hero drew Hydra from her lair, a cave behind the pool, with a volley of burning arrows. When the serpent-like monster appeared, Hercules was stunned to see that she had nine heads; he knew that one of the heads was immortal, but which one? He began viciously hacking off the heads of the beast with the golden sword presented to him by Athena, the patron Goddess of Heroic Endeavour, but to his dismay every head lost was immediately replaced by two more. As the heads of the Hydra continued to multiply Hercules was in danger of being overwhelmed in his quest. But his nephew came to his aid by cauterizing the open stumps with a burning torch. Meanwhile, Hera watching the confrontation from Mount Olympus, manifests a giant crab to distract Hercules, but it is soon crushed to death under a single stamp from his mighty foot. In triumph he hacks off the final and largest head and then buries it under a huge rock beside the road leading to Lerna.

Unfortunately, Eurystheus disqualified this labour as Hercules had been assisted by his nephew Iolaus. But, for their efforts, Hera placed the Hydra and the crab as constellations in the night sky.

Eurystheus and Hera realized that Hercules’ strength was insurmountable and decided on a different strategy to test him for the third labour. The king commanded that he go forth and capture the Ceryneian Hind, a female deer of unnatural speed that could out run a flying arrow, which lived in the region of Ceryneia. Unfortunately for Hercules it was the sacred animal to the Goddess of the Hunt, Artemis. The hind, whose image can be seen in the top right hand corner of this mosaic, was huge and had grown golden male like antlers, while its hooves were of bronze,. Meanwhile, Eurystheus and Hera hoped that Artemis would intervene in this labour and kill Hercules. Hercules pursued his quarry for many months through the countryside of Greece, eventually trapping the hind with the aid of a strong net. With expert and sensitive hands he calmly subdued and secured the hind so he could carry it unharmed across his shoulders and back to Tiryns. The myth tells us that on this homeward journey he encounters Artemis and her twin brother Apollo. Artemis, angry and upset, confronts Hercules. During his explanation the Goddess begins to feel empathy for him and his misfortune. After much deliberation, she reluctantly agrees that he could take her hind back to Tiryns, on the understanding that it was not to become part of the king’s menagerie. Consequently, Hercules on his return to Tiryns, calls out to the king from outside the city wall, to come and claim the captured hind. Brimming with excitement Eurystheus rushes out to receive the hind. But during the handover the cunning Hercules by sleight of hand lets the deer bound free and venomously blames the king for fumbling with the net. The king, now seething with anger, shouts at Hercules that his next labour is to catch the Erymanthian Boar.

To be able to capture the boar, Hercules had to travel to Arcadia, for the beast lived on Mount Erymanthus, where it terrorized the local shepherds and laid waste to their farmland by feeding on their crops. It was an enormous, muscly and fearless beast with huge, dangerous, razor-sharp tusks, while its body was protected by a thick and leather-like skin.

The Erymanthian Boar, in this mosaic, is depicted in the upper centre. It has been stuffed into a large ceramic storage jar, with its back legs poking out. I feel that this is a humorous piece of work, for in Greek mythology Eurystheus was fearful of Hercules. As has found to be depicted on a 6^th century BC Athenian black-figure amphora, Hercules has threatened to put the captured boar into the storage jar where the king had been hiding.

During his journey to Mount Eymanthus, Hercules stayed overnight with the centaurs on Mount Pholoe. These unusual creatures were half-human and half-horse, having the body of a horse while their torso, head and arms were human. A banquet was planned by the host, a centaur and old friend of Hercules, Pholus. During the evening Pholus brought out wine for his guest while the other centaurs were still devouring their raw meat. Shortly, the gorging centaurs became intoxicated, apparently just by the smell of the untampered wine, and turned violent towards Hercules, who fought them off until they fled back to their homes on the mountain. The next morning he continued on his way, planning to visit the wise centaur Chiron. Chiron was the son of the Titan Cronus and therefore was not related to the others of his kind. Also, his physical appearance was different for his front legs were of human form and he was more civilized. Chiron advised Hercules to drive the elusive boar higher up the mountain into a recent deep snowfall where the beast’s short legs would hinder its escape. Consequently Hercules found it easy to capture the boar with his net. Elated, but also fed up with his labours, Hercules trudges back to Tiryns and bursts through the city gates and seeks out the weakling king Eurystheus to deliver the boar, and we all know where he was hiding!

After finishing the fourth labour, Hercules joined Jason and the other Argonauts in their quest for the Golden Fleece. On his return, Eurystheus demanded that he cleans, in just one day, the Augean Stables to fulfil labour number five. The owner of the stables was King Augean of Elis in Southern Greece and his mythical stable housed many herds of cows, sheep, goats, bulls and horses. These stables had become a health hazard to the local community for they had not been mucked-out for many years. It seems that Hercules wanted payment for his efforts, so the king agreed to reward him with one tenth of his cattle if the cleansing of his stables was completed in just one day. The king’s son, Phyleus, accompanied Hercules as a witness that the promised work was accomplished.

King Eurystheus thought that this labour would be both humiliating and impossible for the hero to complete in one day due to the enormous amount of animal dung that had accumulated over many years. Hercules, possibly inspired by the telepathic thoughts from the Goddess Athena, uses the elements and contours of the nearby countryside to his advantage. He begins by making a breach in the two walls opposite each other in the stables. Then, from the breached wall close to the two nearby rivers, the Alpheus and Peneus, he digs out, in their direction, a deep channel. Next, by the use of dams he re-routes both of the rivers so they merge together at this channel. This torrent of now fast flowing water gushes through the stables carrying away with it all of the accumulated dung which is deposited into the nearest river. Hercules then removes the dams and fills in the channel.

With the stable walls repaired King Augean was jubilant, and happy to part with one tenth of his cattle. But when the news reached his ears that King Eurystheus had ordered Hercules to clean his stables, he became riddled with anger and, feeling that he had been swindled, refused to honour his agreement with Hercules. Hercules, we are told, with the king’s son Phyleus as his witness, pursues the king for his reward, through a court of arbitration, where the judges rule in Hercules’ favour. King Augean responds by immediately sending his son into exile and throws Hercules out of his kingdom.

Presumably, Hercules returns empty handed to Tiryns, only to be told by King Eurystheus, that because he had demanded a payment for cleaning the stables it now failed to count as one of the ten labours.

Unfortunately the mosaic floor holds no depiction of this labour or the next as both have been lost to the ravages of time.

Apparently, many years later, with Hercules’ help, Phyleus dethroned his father and declared himself King of Elis.

Hercules sixth labour took him to Arcadia, a region in the Central Peloponnese, where an expanding population of birds, similar to modern day cranes, were disrupting the lives of the local people. These Stymphalian Birds were feeding on crops and fruit trees while their toxic dung was laying waste to the land. They lived on a lake and roosted in the surrounding swamp. Their beaks and wings were of bronze and these mythical, spine-chilling creatures could shoot out their feathers like arrows, so they held no fear of humans. It was said in some versions of this myth that these birds were sacred to Ares the God of the violence of war and the son of Zeus and Hera. This was in contrast to Athena who was the Goddess of the wisdom of war and the daughter of Zeus and the nymph Metis. Ares is mostly depicted wearing a helmet and carrying a spear.

How to stalk these birds was a major concern for Hercules as the swamp was deep and would have sucked him down beneath its surface. But once again Athena helps him solve this problem. She instructs the immortal Hephaestus, God of the Forge, to craft a pair of bronze castanets. Armed with this gift from Athena, Hercules climbs a nearby mountain, and begins to play the castanets. They ring out a fearful and hideous noise which is repulsive to the birds’ ears. It rouses them from the lake and the thick vegetation of the swamp and as they take flight Hercules kills many with his arrows. Those which survive are never to return and take refuge on the island of Aretias in the Euxine, where they were later encountered by the Argonauts during their search for the Golden Fleece.

The myth is remembered amongst the stars within the constellations Aquila (bird/eagle) and Sagitta (arrow).

Hercules’ seventh labour, to catch the Cretan Bull, took him south across the Aegean Sea to the Island of Crete. We can see an image of the bull in the upper left hand corner of this mosaic floor.

This myth is engaging and filled with the emotions of expectancy, greed and lust. Its door is opened by the first king of Crete, King Minos, the son of Zeus and Europe. This new king had been challenged by the people of Crete to prove that he was of divine parentage, so he prays to the sea god Poseidon for a sign. Poseidon, in response, manifests from the depth of the sea a large bull which the king must then sacrifice in honour to the sea god. When the bull swims to the shore all those watching see that it is of the purest white and most noble and handsome in appearance. King Minos was so charmed by the animal’s beauty that he kept it, adding it to his own herd, and sacrificed another. Poseidon reacted with fury and punished the king by making his wife Pasiphae, daughter of the Sun God Helios and the Sea Nymph Perseis, lust after the bull. The queen, now brimming over with lust for the muscular and handsome creature, managed to couple with it by hiding inside a wooden cow, which had been crafted by Daedalus. Impregnated by the bull she gave birth to a son who was named Asterion. This curious baby, born with the head of a bull and a body of a human, was later to be known as the Minotaur. The shocked king immediately commissioned Daedalus to construct, underneath his palace at Knossos, a labyrinth as a home for the growing child.

Poseidon then inflicts madness upon the bull who runs amok through the kingdom, ransacking orchards and destroying crops. With his people hounding him, he calls upon Hercules to remove the rampant animal from the island. Hercules captures the beast with ease and ships the trussed up bull back to Tiryns and to King Eurystheus. This cowardly king was terrified by the huge creature and tells the hero that it should be sacrificed to Hera. Hera though, still full of hatred towards Hercules, refuses to allow it. Eurystheus, in his panic, lets the bull go free. The mad beast lays waste to the countryside until it was captured by Thesus, son of Aegeus and king of Athens, who sacrificed it to Athena and/or Apollo. But perhaps the alternative ending of this myth was that a frustrated and angry Hercules picked up the bull tossing it high into the sky where it became the constellation Taurus.

Labour number eight necessitated the demi-god Hercules to sail across the Aegean Sea to Thrace and capture the Mares of Diomedes. Diomedes was the king of a war-like tribe known as the Bistones and the son of Ares, the god of war, and possibly Cyrene.

This is a grizzly myth, for king Diomedes had encouraged his four mares to feed only on the unnatural diet of human flesh. All the horses had names. There was Lampton (the shining), Podargos (the swift footed), Deinos (the terrible) and Xanthos (the blond).

After locating the horses, Hercules and his companion and perhaps his lover, Abderus, son of the God Hermes, overpower the horses’ grooms and spirit the mares away towards their anchored ship. Seemingly, one of the grooms escapes and gets word to the king who despatches with haste a unit of his military. As the soldiers appear on the horizon, Hercules orders Abderus to go on ahead and board the mares, while he deals with the threat of the soldiers. Many fall victim to the arrows of the hero, while the remainder flee for their lives. When he returns to the beach a devastating scene awaits him, for the mares have somehow overpowered Abderus, rendered him unconscious and are feeding on his body. Distraught and heartbroken, Hercules tethers the horses and buries the remains of his lover. Consequently he seeks out king Diomedes and takes a terrible revenge. He kills the king and feeds his body to his own four mares.

The myth goes on to tell us that this action restores the divine order that had been violated by Diomedes when he forced the horses to eat human flesh. The mares become normal and domesticated and feed on grass and hay.

During his grief, Hercules gives a local coastal settlement his lover’s name, which in the passing of time grows into a city and a successful port. The west gate of this city, Abdera can still be seen today.

A dejected Hercules sails away and delivers the mares to his cousin, king Eurystheus, at Tiryns, who then orders the horses to be taken to Mount Olympus to be sacrificed to Zeus. Zeus refuses them and sends out a number of wild animals to destroy them.

Within this mosaic, the myth appears in several places where the soldiers are falling from their horses after being struck by the arrows of Hercules.

King Eurystheus, for Hercules’ ninth labour, commanded the hero to bring him the belt worn by Hippolyta, Queen of the Amazons, a tribe of women warriors, so he could present it as a birthday gift for his daughter Admete.

The belt was of leather and lined with gold and precious stones and was a symbol of her supremacy as queen. It also had magical qualities giving the wearer enhanced physical strength and mental agility. It was worn across the chest and continued around the waist where it was fastened and held in place by a gold buckle. Queen Hippolyta was one of the daughters of Ares, the God of War, and Otrera.

These Amazon warriors were athletic and imposing and fought their battles on horseback. They favoured the bow, arrow and the spear as their weapons of war. Several versions of this myth suggest that in childhood, they had their right breast removed so to be more proficient with the bow and arrow. The tribe inhabited the land around the mouth of the river Thermodon in Northern Turkey.

Hercules, his allies and some close friends, which included Theseus and possibly Telamon, set sail across the Aegean Sea to the City of Temiscyria, situated close to the mouth of the river Thermodon. On their arrival they had been surprisingly welcomed by Queen Hippolyta, who was then subsequently invited to attend a banquet, which was to be held on board the ship, in the Queen’s honour. During the course of the feasting Hercules related to Hippolytas’ sympathetic ears the narrative of why he was there. He spilt out to her that he had been responsible for the deaths of his wife and children and to gain repentance he had to fulfil a number of labours requested of him by the king of Tiryns. The Queen was so charmed and seduced by the muscular, vigorous and dynamic Hercules that she willingly handed over her sacred belt. In the meantime the evil Hera had been deeply distressed by how easily Hercules had acquired the belt and so cultivated suspicion in the guise of an Amazon warrior by spreading a rumour that Hercules was only here to kidnap their queen. The warriors had then tried desperately and violently to board the anchored ship. Hercules, sadly, had thought that Hippolyta had been treacherous and killed her. When the attack had been repelled, Hercules and his allies sailed away and after a short visit to Troy they returned to Tiryns.

Unfortunately it seems that any depiction of this myth in this mosaic has not survived to the present.

King Eurystheus, increasingly concerned that Hercules may one day wish to depose him as king of Tiryns, especially if he managed to complete all of his set labours, decided to send him for his next quest to the edge of the then known world. Hopefully, Hercules would get disorientated and lost, never to return, and/or be killed by some as yet unknown murderous and hideous beast. He demanded that Hercules bring to him the Cattle of Geryon to fulfil his tenth labour.

This was a gargantuan task for he would have had to travel westward, to the Atlantic Ocean, then known as the Oceanus, which the ancient Greeks believed to be an immense river that encircled the world. Geryon, the owner of the cattle, lived on the Island of Erytheia, a mythical name given to a real place. The island was located in the far western stream of the earth-encircling river. Here, then, the sun could not descend any further, so on cloudless evenings the whole island would have been bathed in the red light of the setting sun. In the course of time it became known as the Red Isle and even Geryon’s cattle had acquired hides of red.

The journey west went well for Hercules until his way was blocked by a continuous mountain range, which joined together the continents of Africa and Europe and also sealed off the Mediterranean Sea from the Atlantic Ocean. A frustrated Hercules, using his mighty club, beat the mountain until it yielded and was breached. A small gap appeared running from the top to the bottom. As the water gushed through, erosion widened the gap, which was to become known as the Strait of Gibraltar. On one side now stood the Rock of Gibraltar and on the other Jebel Musa, and these two mountains taken together have been christened ‘The Pillars of Hercules’. Hercules ensured that the distance between the pillars was kept narrow for he was fearful that if it was any wider sea monsters from the Atlantic would be free to enter into the Mediterranean Sea.

After his efforts, Hercules laid himself down exhausted and thirsty. But because of the searing heat, he had become delusional and from his powerful bow, he released an arrow towards the sun. Fortunately the Sun God, Helius, took pity on the hero and granted him the loan of his enormous golden wine goblet in which Hercules could sail and complete his journey to the Island of Erytheia. Being in strange waters, he kept his club close by, ready to ward off any inquisitive and unwelcome sea monsters.

On his arrival on the island, Hercules found the cattle grazing on Mount Abbas. But as he approached the herd, Geryon’s two headed guard dog Orthus smelt his body scent and charged out to defend the herd with both of its heads barking and snarling. He was a fearful sight, but Hercules killed the beast with just one blow from his mighty club. Then the herdsman Eurytion made an appearance but, when trying to assist Orthus, he also fell victim to the club of Hercules. Unfortunately, Menoetes, who was nearby tending the cattle of Hades, reported these events to Geryon, a grotesque giant, who was son of Chrysaor and Callirrhoe. This monster had one body, three heads and three sets of legs, all joined at its waist. Hercules and Geryon confronted each other on the banks of the River Athemus. The battle was soon over, for Hercules killed his opponent with arrows which had been poisoned with the blood of Hydra. (In Greek mythology both Geryon and Eurytion were immortal and are mentioned again in other myths). The cattle were then herded into the goblet, which expanded in size as each animal boarded it and Hercules sailed with them to the port at Tartessos, where he gratefully returned the golden goblet to Helius.

The return journey eastwards to Tiryns was potentially hazardous as well as dangerous, for there would have been numerous illicit and shady characters ready to relieve Hercules of his prized cattle. While travelling through Southern France he fought off a band of Ligurians by showering them with rocks which had been supplied to him by Zeus. Cacus, a fire breathing giant, who lived in a cave close to Aventine Hill, part of the future site of Rome, was also unsuccessful with his efforts. Also while in Italy, the town of Herculaneum was founded in his honour, possibly after he had dispatched a troublesome beast to Hades, the God of the underworld,

But, it was Hera who caused the most anguish and worry for the hero during his journey home. She held a deep loathing for him as he was the bastard child of her husband Zeus. She had managed to scatter the whole herd by setting amongst them many gadfly, their bites causing much irritation to the cattle. Also, she had set loose the herd’s finest bull and Hercules had to swim to the Island of Sicily to retrieve it. Fortunately, the God of Fire and Metalworking, Hephaestus, looked after the herd at his forge beneath Mount Etna, while Hercules was away,

Shortly after leaving Italy, Hercules seemed to have passed through the realm of Dracaena, the first ruler of the land of Scythia, who then managed to steal some of his cattle. Dracaena was half woman and half serpent. She was a woman from the waist up but with a tail instead of legs. She would return his cattle only if he shared her bed that very night. Their union resulted in the birth of three children, all male: Skythes, Agathyros and Gelonos. Therefore, Hercules became the ancestor of a line of Skythian Kings.

Hercules, upon his return to Tiryns, delivers the cattle to the court of King Eurystheus, who then…… promptly sacrificed them to Hera!

In this mosaic, Geryon seems to be depicted to the left of the rock in its upper centre, but the cattle are absent. Also missing is a depiction of the next labour, the Apples of the Hesperides. But this labour has already been discussed within the north apse of this triclinium, where Hercules is seen accepting his coronation in Olympus.

The twelfth and final labour was that Hercules had to capture Cerberus, a three headed hound with a mane of snakes, who was the guardian of the gates of the underworld and was related to the Hydra, the Nemean Lion, and Orthus, all of whom had been killed by Hercules.

The ancient Greeks believed that after they died their souls lived on for all eternity within the bowels of the earth, in the kingdom known as the underworld of Hades and his wife Persephone. Therefore, before beginning his quest, Hercules travelled to Eleusis, a town twelve miles northwest of Athens, to seek the wise words of a priest by the name of Eumolpus. Eumolpus was a son of Poseidon and one of the first priests of the Eleusinian mysteries, the most famous of the religious rites of ancient Greece. The priest told Hercules that the souls of the departed could not be diminished by mortal weapons or physical assault, although they would be fearful of his living presence and the first person he would encounter would be Charon, the ferryman.

Consequently Hercules asked Hermes, a son of Zeus and the Pleiad Maia, to accompany him on his journey to the underworld, for he was able to move freely between the worlds of the living and the dead. Before they entered the cave in Tanaerum, which led down into the underworld, Hercules dressed himself in the pelt of the Nemean Lion. After their decent they were confronted by Charon, a man of slim build, of advanced age and with rounded shoulders. His cheeks were haggard, his beard unkempt and he possessed a nose like that of an eagle’s beak. He alone ferried the souls of the dead across the river Acheron, (later mythology sources seem to quote the river Styx), the boundary between the living earth and the underworld. At first Charon refused to take Hercules across the river as he was still a mortal but, perhaps feeling intimidated by Hercules’ physical appearance, he relented. As the two travellers approached the gates that barred their entry to the underworld, out of the gloom appeared Cerberus. He was the result of a union between the half-woman, half-serpent Echinda and the fire-breathing giant Typhon. Although he was a pet belonging to Hades, his main duty was to keep the souls of the dead from leaving the underworld, as well as protecting it from any mortal that tried to enter into it through the gates. As the three headed hound bounded towards them, Hermes drew its attention and unnoticed, Hercules slipped in through the gates. Cerberus, perhaps sensing that Hermes could travel freely between the two worlds, let him enter unopposed.

The ghost-like souls of the dead seemed to drift endlessly to and fro in the murk, not daring to approach someone who was still a mortal. As they wandered on, Hercules heard a voice calling out his name and as he peered hard into the misty dark, he recognised the faces of Theseus and Pirithous. They were both permanently ensnared in the two stone ‘Chairs of Forgetfulness.’ Theseus begged Hercules to use his mighty strength to pull them free. He managed to rescue Theseus, but when he tried to liberate Pirithius, the whole earth shook violently in opposition, causing Hercules to abandon him to his fate. The noise of his kingdom quaking stimulated the arrival of Hades, who confronted Hercules, demanding an explanation as to why he was here. Hades listened with a keen ear, pondered for a time and then spoke again to Hercules. He agreed that Hercules may ‘borrow’ Cerberus if he managed to defeat the dog into submission without using any mortal weapons. Thankfully the lion’s pelt protected him from the jaws of its three heads, the hissing biting snakes and its poisonous serpent like tail. Eventually the beast succumbed to the hero’s superior strength and Hercules carried the exhausted animal, across his shoulders, back to Tiryns.

On arrival, he presented Cerberus to Eurysteus and as he did so, the beast opened its eyes and began to wake. Terrified, the king begged Hercules to return it with immediate effect to Hades, with the promise that all his labours were now fulfilled.

Now, after nearly ten years in the wilderness, Hercules was exonerated and forgiven for the murders of his wife and children. He had survived the twelve evil plots of Hera and Eurystheus, had become immortal and went to live on Mount Olympus with his father Zeus. Hera, in time repented and offered her daughter Hebe, to be his wife.

In the mosaic Cerberus is noticed in its upper right, just beyond the huge rock, but sadly only fragments of his heads remain.

The use of a delightful combination of deep and varying colours keeps my eyes keenly wandering across this central floor and the intermittently dispersed sprigs of foliage, set between the labours, seems to have a calming but unexplained effect on my senses.

It is worth noting that a thick line of black tesserae encloses the individual mosaics, with the gigantomachy having the best preserved border, where a semicircle of guilloche is encaged on both sides by a continual gentle line of dentils.

THE EASTERN AQUEDUCT (40)

On releasing myself from the absorbing triclinium, I notice close by the outer stone casing of a water tank. The tank would have been fed by the villa’s eastern aqueduct. From here the water passed between the rooms of Orpheus and the Bikini Girls and on into the pool in the peristyle. Then it would have continued its journey to supply the internal latrines and the fountain in the atrium. Next it would travel into the outside latrine. Another aqueduct entered from the north and fed the piscina of the bathhouse. Parts of this aqueduct are still visible close to the entrance of the villa. The water would have been sourced from the upper river Gelas, which rises in the vicinity and, on its way down, it irrigated the whole complex.

THE HALL OF ARION (41)

From here on, except for the Basilica, we seem to be viewing the private living accommodation of the villa’s resident family. The mosaics are artistic, full of colour and engagingly crafted; the family must have felt that they inhabited an earthly paradise. Close to the corridor of the Great Hunt is a rectangular 7m x 8m room. Its entrance is flanked by two columns, as is its 5m diameter apse. The mosaic floor presents a marine scene of much activity where Arion, the famous poet of Corinth (born to the Goddess Demeter after she was raped by Poseidon who had taken the guise of a horse), plays his zither, while perched upon the back of a dolphin.

Arion was a poet who sang his own poems and was returning to Corinth from Sicily with his prize, a bag full of gold, after winning a musical contest. Unfortunately, the crew of the returning ship stole his gold and then forced him to jump into the sea, though only after he was allowed to play and sing one last poem. As his voice floated out over the waves of the sea it was so enchanting that it attracted a school of dolphins. As he floundered within the sea a dolphin appeared beneath him and raised him above the water. The myth goes on to tell us that he eventually returned to Corinth, where its king promised Arion that he will be avenged when the ship made port. When confronted by their king and on seeing Arion, the crew of the ship sobbed and begged to be forgiven and returned the bag of gold. The king punished them severely.

My eyes become mesmerized by the composition of this spectacular mosaic for the whole scene flows with gentle blends of grey, yellow and muted orange/red colours. Arion, still perched on the back of the dolphin, with an elegant feminine Nereid’s right hand supporting the zither, sings out his praises to Poseidon, God of the sea, for sending the dolphin to rescue him. Perhaps, then, his playing and singing was so serene that all sea creatures both natural and mythological swam up to the surface and joined the celebrations.

As Arion plays, he is protected from the rays of the sun by a gown that billows out in the breeze, which is jointly held by two winged cupids. All the cupids seem to be wearing neck, arm and wrist bracelets and one is to be viewed riding on the back of long necked sea monster, as it confronts a Triton wielding a weapon. Another Triton, (the Tritons were a race of sea gods/goddesses born from Triton, a son of Poseidon and Amphitrite ), keeps a griffin in check by holding onto its reins with his right hand while seemingly holding a plate of food in his left. Also, land animals such as tigers, panthers and horses, some mounted by cupids, appear among the waves. Looking closely, scantily but richly dressed females offer plates of food to monsters from the deep while another, sitting on a rock, calmly views her reflection in a mirror.

So much of this mosaic has survived for us all to marvel at but, sadly, the mosaic in the apse is mostly lost. It held, possibly, a depiction of Oceanus, the Titan God of the earth - encircling River Okeanos which distributed nourishing fresh waters across the earth via aquifers.

It seems that parts of the walls would have been dressed with grey and white marble as were the small areas of flooring that divided the connecting rooms and apses. The main border in the ‘Hall of Arion’ is seemingly a bright design of interlocking Z patterns laced with a combination of red and grey shaded marble. Perhaps at their entrance, all the rooms would have had thick, plain coloured, expensive curtains which would have allowed privacy when required. Also, they would have been used to keep chilly draughts at bay while keeping warm air in.

THE ATRIUM OF THE FISHING CUPIDS (42)

From here we can depart into the Atrium of the Fishing Cupids, a semi-circular room with a four column portico which encircles a nymphaeum. The columns are of marble with Ionic capitals, set to hold up the compluvium, a square, inward-sloping opening in the roof, through which rainwater collected into the impluvium, which was lined with local limestone. Within it are the remains of a small fountain. The remnants of delicate frescoes grace the walls, for inside the borders of pompeiian red are the faded figures of naked youths. Between these frescoes and the marble pillars is a seascape mosaic, crafted by accomplished hands and a perceptive mind, which has much content to engage hungry eyes and inquisitive minds.

This room’s mosaic is very well preserved. Delightful cupids/putti are enjoying fishing in the sea which is teeming with life. The lively fish are being speared with harpoons, caught by baited fishing lines and trapped in nets. Some of the cupids are void of clothes, while others wear grey or light green tunics. Two of them, seen between and above two of the boats which have been fishing by sharing a long net, play within the gentle waves and perhaps the cupid on the right is enjoying teasing the two ducks.

Interestingly, some of the fishing boats, at each of their ends, hold framed motifs and the area in between them is decorated with similar designs that can be seen bordering mosaics in some of the villa’s rooms. Also, a keen eye can spot the mark of a V on the foreheads of at least two of the fishing cupids. Could these possibly be a recognisable sign to identify the team of mosaicists that crafted this floor?

In the background, along the outer perimeter of the semicircle, the shore is lined with a collection of buildings connected by porticos and covered by double sloping domed roofs. There are occasional inlets where the fishing boats could unload their catch and shelter from strong winds. Blending in behind the buildings, the shore is littered with a compilation of varying species of trees.

The content of the mosaic’s border is intriguing, as it holds a right angled Z pattern of black and white strips, of which all have a larger white head, containing a roundish black spot. This, I feel, makes them look like sea snakes. Beyond these are rectangles all filled with simple random designs in red which blend in well with the bows and sterns of the two nearby fishing boats.

THE CUBICLE OF THE MUSICIANS AND ACTORS (43)

It has been suggested that within these private apartments, the room known as the Cubicle of the Musicians and Actors was utilized as a bedroom/cubiculum. This room is located adjacent to the Hall of Arion and entered from the Vestibule of the Small Circus. It is about 4m x 6m in size with a narrow semi-circular apse, separated from the main area by two marble columns, of which only the bases remain. The apse is excellently preserved, unlike the main floor where large patches have been lost. Thankfully, the mosaic border of black isosceles triangles, which frames both the main floor and the apse, seems to be complete. The walls tantalise and torment my imagination with what remains of the plaster and much-faded paintings.

The apse is abundant with blooming roses, and two women (with the letter V upon their foreheads) are perilously perched on the edges of two wicker stools skilfully weaving rose crowns. The busy women continually pluck the roses from the wicker baskets by their feet and both wear similar long, dark green tunics which are gathered in just above their waists by two red belts. The lady on the left, with a crown upon her head, looks more mature than the smaller female opposite her. Consequently, they may represent the mistress of the villa, accompanied by a daughter as they work together producing rose crowns/garlands for the oncoming festival, which is depicted below, to honour the Roman Goddess Flora.

The tree in between the two women is possibly an oak and from its heart-shaped top a symbolic ivy leaf seems to have sprung. Looking further down, on the threshold that divides the apse from the cubiculum, a small trapeze table is to be seen. Upon it are two pouches marked with the value of what is inside and are possibly the prizes for the musical and poetic events that appear in the larger mosaic below. But, what is hidden from our eyes within the two other packages? Perhaps, if the two crowns of roses with branches of palm entwined are to be worn by two dignitaries when presenting the prizes, they could contain the appropriate ceremonial gowns.

The mosaic below can be divided into three sections with the top part showing a quartet playing four different musical instruments. The second figure from the left is a woman wearing a flowing gown, playing a cithara which is mounted on a table. Next to her is a man dressed in a toga, stabilizing with his left hand a syrinx on his head. (But why is this on his head?) To his left is figure, possibly a woman, dressed in a colourful palla/stola playing a double flute. The fourth musician, playing a tibia, is smartly attired in a toga with a red cape secured round his neck and draped over his left shoulder, while his head is decorated by a garland of flowers.

The central scene is extremely damaged and therefore difficult to interpret, but looking to the far right, two male figures seem to have drums suspended at waist height by straps worn around their necks. One wears a tunic and tights and holds a thin crooked stick in both hands, behind his head. The left of this scene may depict two women singers and between the two pairs of performers a large kettle drum displays, on discs, Greek letters which may correspond to musical notes.

Casting our inquisitive eyes down upon the damaged lower scene, we again notice a red mounted drum/cymbal still showing its surviving three discs, which perhaps denote musical tones. To the left are the fragmented and colourful but faded remains of two people, while between them is possibly the base of another mounted drum/cymbal. Now looking to the right, the two figures are well preserved and a woman, adorned in a full length tunic showing a design with horizontal bands, plays a chitara or a lyre. She is kept warm by a red shawl which is secured around her neck and then cascades down her back. Facing her is a young poet presenting himself in a long and wide white tunic which is ornamented by two dark vertical stripes (clavi), and these are matched with a narrow band on the hem of the sleeves. He has an air of confidence about him as he casually grasps the tail of his cloak, while his right hand calmly gestures towards the woman as he sings or recites to her a tale, perhaps of a long lost lover.

Now, returning to the upper scene of the three and concentrating our vision upon the first figure on the left, who is dressed with a toga over a tunic, it is noticed that he holds a palm leaf in his left hand. Perhaps, with his right arm risen high above his head, he is seeking everyone’s attention so he can officially announce the winner of the competition, who will then be presented with the palm leaf which symbolises victory. The palm leaf was carried, in Roman Mythology, by the Goddess of victory, Victoria, who was the equivalent to Nike, the Greek Goddess of victory.

THE VESTIBULE OF THE SMALL CIRCUS (44)

Wandering on, we can now visit the Vestibule of the Small Circus. This rectangular room is located between the Atrium of the Fishing Cupids and the Cubicle of the Musicians and Actors and would have functioned as the antechamber to the latter. I find this room delightful and can imagine, at certain times, this being a play area for the resident children and their invited friends, a place full of fun, joy and laughter.

The mosaics are excellently preserved and contain a wealth of colourful action which was conscientiously formulated, in a jocular manner, of events that the public would have viewed at the Massimo Circus.

This mosaic floor depicts children as the charioteers. All are neatly attired in long sleeved tunics as they race around the spina of the circus, complete with the obelisk of Augustus, which was a dedication to the sun and a monument of his conquest of Egypt. Also visible, at either end, are the three tapered turning pillars (metae). Feathered friends have replaced the horses of those seen in the Palaestra, although the colours of the competing factions have stayed the same. The russata faction (red) is represented by two flamingos, the albata (white) by two geese, the veneta (blue) by two waders and the prasina (green) by two green pigeons. All the charioteers have an assistant, who also wears a tunic of the factions’ colour, whose purpose is to motivate the birds to keep running and all seem to be carrying a small amphora, possibly holding water. Looking at the lower front of the mosaic we can see that the charioteer of the prasina (as in the Palaestra) is the winning faction as he is handed the palm of victory.

All of the web-footed teams seem to have decorations around their necks and it has been suggested that these represent the four seasons of the year. The red flamingos, showing roses, are for spring; the wheat around the necks of the geese is for summer; the grapes hanging from the waders is autumn, while the bare twigs around the necks of the green pigeons indicate winter.

The mosaic is framed by a simple black/white meander, which is surrounded on both sides by thick bands of white and this in turn is bound by a double fillet of black. The walls of the room show traces of long lost paintings.

THE VESTIBULE OF EROS AND PAN (45)

Moving on, we arrive at the Vestibule of Eros and Pan, which is located between the Atrium of the Fishing Cupids and the Cubicle of the Children Hunting of which the named vestibule is its antechamber.

I feel that what is depicted in this mosaic floor, in all probability, is the most difficult to interpret with any conviction, of all of the mosaic floors within this villa.

The floor is framed by an easy on the eye darkish pattern of continual zigzag spindles and between each pair are seemingly small sprigs of palm. The walls, no doubt, would have been dressed with alluring frescoes. This room is rectangular in shape being 4.7m long by 5.4m wide. The main characters, Pan and Eros, seem to be ready to engage in a wrestling match, for Pan’s large hand reaches out to grasp Eros’ smaller right hand. Eros, complete with wings, is naked except for body decorations around his neck, upper arms and wrists. Pan is bearded, has long flowing hair, and horns, thighs and legs of a goat. He is visibly physically stronger than the winged youth who opposes him. The arbitrator/referee, dressed in a purple toga over an embroidered white tunic, stands in the front and to the left of Pan (Roman counterpart being Faunus) and seems ready to start the contest when he drops his extended right arm.

Both of the Gods have an entourage of supporters and Pan is accompanied by a Dionysian procession of maenads and a satyr who is pointing, with a finger of his right hand, to the table above. In his other hand he holds a shepherd’s crook (pedum) while over his shoulder is a fawn or leopard skin. Just above him are two females, one dressed in a yellow tunic and the other in red. Both are holding a thyrsus entwined with ivy which relates them to the cult of Bacchus (Greek counterpart being Dionysus).

Pan, whose parentage is unclear, is the Greek God of shepherds, flocks and wild landscapes, who enjoyed simple and unsophisticated music. He was connected to fertility, the season of spring and was worshipped in caves and grottoes. His opponent, Eros, is the Greek God of Love and congenial living, and to the right are his supporters. The young lad close to him reaches out as if to pat Eros on his back. He wears a brown toga while the figure behind him, wearing a black necklace, is clothed in a yellow toga. Three women, all elegantly dressed, are noticed, with the one at the rear, clad in a yellow tunic and palla, showing off her hair in a more graceful and stylized manner than her compatriots. In front of her, a woman has her right arm extended towards the two bags of money lying beneath the trapeze table. She wears a red tunic which is decorated with a broad vertical black stripe down its centre and has a matching sleeve hem, while a blue cloak and a gold neck bracelet add to her allure. In the forefront, the smaller woman, dressed in a yellow tunic and a purple palla, holds her right hand to her mouth; this nervous action perhaps portrays a pensive and worried mood.

The whole scene seems to have been set on a plain at the bottom of a valley for there are trees growing on both of the gently sloping hillsides and consequently the central focus of four rounded pots on a table demands visual attention. All have a decorative brown horizontal band, although between the four, there are only two different alternating but simple patterns. Each of the pots contain two palm leaves, one pointing to the right and the other to the left. The palms from the two central pots criss-cross with others and beneath them, on the ground, are two bulging sacks containing equal amounts of money.

THE ARBITRATOR

More clarity is perceived if we glimpse in our mind something of what these two Gods represent within this mosaic. Pan possibly had a contemptuous, selfish attitude to life, as depictions of him having sex with a she-goat suggest. His supporters shown here are also the merrymaking followers of the cult of Bacchus, while the supporters of Eros are probably all of one family and offer a devotional, enduring and a continuously stable way of living. The pending dual between the combatants could be purely symbolic but if it did take place a draw was the most lightly outcome. If there was meant to be a winner, surely the prize money would have been just in one bag? Perhaps then, the money in the two bags symbolizes the equality of the two divinities? And the palm branch, the symbol of victory, which is embedded between the two Gods, will remain through all eternity, un-plucked.

THE CUBICLE OF THE CHILDREN HUNTING (46)

Moving on from here we can gain entrance to the Cubicle of the Children Hunting, which it has been suggested, was the bedroom of the first lady of the villa. But the mosaic content of this visually appealing and engaging cubiculum, with its narrower alcove at its end, may also have suited one of the younger sons of the Dominus. In antiquity two marble pillars, one on each side, would have separated the alcove from the larger mosaic floor, while some of the walls were richly decorated, as traces of red squares, yellow triangles and figures are still partially visible. Also, in parts, decorative marble can be seen.

The mosaic in the alcove is divided into two parts, although both relate to the cultivation of red flowers, probably roses. At the top two young women, both dressed in long tunics with wide sleeves, one in grey and the other in yellow, are busy picking the blooms and gently placing them in wicker baskets. Below, the woman on the right, delivers to the florist two full baskets of the freshly picked roses and bending slightly forward sets one of them down upon the floor. The florist, to the left and using her dark cloak as a cushion, sits comfortably on a seat as she interlaces the roses into ribbon-like garlands. She has been busy, for two finished garlands hang delicately from a branch of a nearby rose tree.

On the threshold, between the main room and the alcove, a stout youth in laced up sandals and attired in a short grey tunic, decorated with two long vertical brown stripes and matching sleeve hems, balances two more baskets of roses, one on each side of a wooden flexible pole. It seems that mosaic scenes regarding the cultivation of roses are popular in at least two of the private apartments in this villa, for as well as this alcove, wreaths made from roses are depicted in the Cubicle of the Musicians and Actors. Perhaps then, the festival of Flora, the Roman Goddess of flowers and fertility (April 27^th- 3^rd May), was celebrated lavishly at the villa and in the local community. Cascades of flowers, including roses, would have been used to decorate temples and houses. Roses would have appeared in men and women’s hair styles and children would have had fun making themselves and their favourite animals look special.

The mosaic below in the main and larger area of the room, at first glance, creates a completely contrasting atmosphere, one of violence and death, for in the top and bottom sections animals are being brutally hunted. The perpetrators are three enthusiastic young males, all dressed in embroidered full sleeve tunics and protective footwear with socks. The youth in the centre of the top section has shepherded a hare towards his friend who ends its life by thrusting a spear into its chest. Meanwhile, the other member of the trio has managed to lassoo a large duck which responds by violently flapping its wings in a vain and desperate attempt to gain back its freedom.

There are two other puzzling and obscure items within this section of which I can only offer a guess at their possible function. One is to be seen in the bottom left hand corner, close to the youth with the spear, which could be a container filled with bait, used to entice their quarry to come closer. The other item is seemingly hanging from a tree between the same youth and the doomed hare. This implement may have been used to hang the dead animals on so their blood drained from their bodies while the youths hunted elsewhere. The six pieces of material would have fluttered in the breeze keeping carrion-eating birds at bay.

In the large third section, some of which has been lost, the hunt proceeds, but this time by young males embellished in embroidered tunics with long but tight fitting sleeves. The hunt takes place within a scene where there is an abundance of green foliage, flowers and trees bearing fruit and in the top left a thrush watches the unfolding drama. Below this bird the young hunter raises his right arm, ready to strike out with a stick at a peacock which defends its self by kicking out at the attacker with its right leg, while its closed tail showing a few of its ‘eyes’ is draped along the ground behind it. I think that the two other hunters were working together and the one with the protective shield has forced an aggressive goat into the direction of his accomplice, who kills it with a long handled spear. The large long-legged bird above the stricken goat is probably just observing, at a safe distance; it is not being aggressive, because the youth, other than holding the shield, is unarmed with his attention purely focused upon the fate of the goat.

The remaining rectangular panel, between the two hunting scenes, is laced with humour as two youngish males are pursued by hostile and belligerent animals. The boy on the left has been bitten on the leg by a rat with a long tail, and blood is seen pouring out of the wound, while his companion, on the right, is pursued by an angry cockerel which attacks him with its beak and spurs as he stumbles. The third boy, in the centre, looks bemused and being closely watched by a pheasant, throws his arms up towards the sky in frustration. A pigeon or a jay is perched on some foliage above him, and what is possibly a caterpillar, tumbles down after being dislodged from higher up by the breeze.

This delightful and engaging mosaic is initially encased by a thick monochrome band of black tesserae and all is then framed, on a narrow mat of off-white tesserae, by a continuous but alternating three sided square design. Within the squares are flower blooms which hold centralised black crosses.

THE OCTAGONAL LATRINE (47)

Just a short distance from the last room and located behind the Hall of Arion is the octagonal latrine. This would have been accessed via a passage and would have been used only by the villa’s family and their visitors. It was furnished with a small hand-wash basin and five toilets enhanced by seats of marble, and its inner walls carried decorations of frescoes. Close by, on the right, is a tank which fed water to the sewer of the latrine.

The floor mosaic is surprisingly well preserved and depicts a cantharus. I feel that this huge vase has been thoughtfully and cleverly designed to feed our eyes with a transparent view of the regimented layers of seeds within it. One of the enclosed seeds has germinated, matured and then advanced upwards to sprout and seek out the life-giving sunlight. These two main arteries of growth give life to thread-like veins of which many bear fruit in the guise of ivy leaves and varying spiral designs. Therefore, perhaps, the symbolism of this mosaic reflects to us all, a reminder about our own journey through life, for while we grow and move away in different directions we still, in one way or another, need the support of others.

THE GREAT BASILICA (48)

This Basilica was built on the highest point of the villa and in antiquity it would have been the largest and the most prestigious part of the villa, while its prominent position would have dominated the whole complex. Apparently it is 100 roman-feet long (29.8m) and 18.3m wide and could be entered via a short flight of steps from the Corridor of the Great Hunt. Two imposing reddish granite columns, (possibly porphyry from Egypt) with one on either side, marked the open entrance. Upon entering this main rectangular part of the basilica the visitors’ feet would have engaged with marble opus sectile flooring, for marble constituted the most expensive and celebrated of materials in the Roman world.

As this building was intended to be a place of business, administrative duties and judicial courts of justice, many important people would have visited and viewed the internal decoration with a scholastic and cultured but critical eye. This may well have motivated the now long and forgotten artisans of the past to excel with their already formidable skills.

Today, as we view it, only fragments remain of their work, but in the classical past the whole floor would have been dressed with fine marble polychrome inlays filled with geometric shapes of squares, circles, triangles and rectangles. Parts of the lower walls would also have been covered with marble slabs, and perhaps higher up would have been mosaics constructed with the use of glass tesserae.

Deeper into this basilica is an apse. It is slightly narrower than the main area and was once flanked by two columns of which only the bases remain. Within the apse, it seems that there was probably a large dominant and significant ceremonial chair, or as others have suggested, a throne, from where a person with authority of officialdom or with the supremacy of sovereignty would have, from time to time, held court. Close by are the circular remains of part of the marbled floor, although much damaged, which show in two of its remaining corners flowers with their stigmas. These face a continuing circular band of white spindles, with a grey marble background, which are separated by vertical lines. Towards the centre, within a purple band of marble, are small delicate white vases; all have tendrils, which travel to both the right and left hand sides. Beyond the vases the spindle design is repeated.

The apse is slightly higher than the main larger floor, and above and behind the chair/throne and carved into the wall is a niche which would have held a huge marble statue. Many believe that it would have been of the mythical demi-god Hercules, the greatest of the Greek heroes, as the head of such a statue was unearthed during the excavations.

THE VESTIBULE OF POLYPHEMUS (49)

Moving on from the basilica, and to the north, we can visit the remaining private apartments of this astonishing villa. The first room is the Vestibule of Polyphemus, the antechamber of possibly two bedrooms, and can be entered from the Corridor of the Great Hunt,. The mosaic floor here depicts a scene from the long narrative poem, known as the Odyssey, which has been attributed to the shadowy figure of a citizen of Greece named Homer. Today he is still a man of much mystery who was born sometime between the 12^th-8^th centuries BC. Below our feet we see the Greek hero Odysseus, (known to the Romans as Ulysses) King of Ithaca, an island in the Ionian Sea, being held captive in a cave by Polyphemus.

The myth unfolds as follows: after fighting in the war against the City of Troy with other Greeks, Ulysses and twelve sailors start their journey home. During the voyage they land on the island of the Cyclops (possibly Sicily) and begin to search for food. They then stumble upon and enter a cave (which may have been close to Mount Etna) and find some sheep and goats taking shelter within. While they’re exploring the cave, its inhabitant suddenly returns. He is a giant Cyclops, a local second generation herdsman named Polyphemus, a result of a union between Poseidon and the sea nymph Thoosa. After herding his remaining animals into the cave for the night he blocks its entrance with a massive stone. The sailors’ fear betrays them and, as the Cyclops eats raw flesh of any kind, he immediately devours two of the men, a fate which eventually befalls to four more of the imprisoned crew.

The sailors realise that they must hatch a plan of escape or perish. Consequently, their thoughts turn to the wineskin which they had bought with them from the ship. They decide to pour the wine into two bowls and tentatively offer their contents to Polyphemus, in the hope of getting him drunk and disorientated. The giant, as seen in the mosaic before us, is depicted sitting on a large flat rock, completely naked except for a sheepskin tied around his neck and is feasting on the carcass of what looks like a ram. The Cyclops drinks the wine and slowly falls into a drunken stupor. Thankfully, and quickly, the surviving crew find and sharpen the end of a tree branch and just before day-break Ulysses, using it as a weapon, plunges it deep into the sleeping giant’s single orb-shaped eye, which is in the middle of its forehead. In this mosaic, though, Polyphemus is shown with two human eyes as well, but this is probably just a symbolism as to the mythical Cyclops’ half human descent.

As day-break looms the giant, in much agony, stumbles towards the entrance of his cave, for he needs to let his flock out to graze. Slyly, he rolls the boulder away just enough to allow his animals, one by one to squeeze past him. This he hopes will allow him to detect the humans if they try to escape. But, unknown to him, the crafty Ulysses and his surviving crew grab the chance to gain freedom by hanging on to the under bellies of some of the sheep as they file out. When the angry Polyphemus realises they have fled, he prays to his father Poseidon for help. The god of the seas responds by making Ulysses’ journey home fraught with danger.

Looking down at the mosaic, our eyes are allowed to spy into the cave where Polyphemus sits on a huge rock, with a disembowelled ram hanging over his left thigh. He reaches out with his other hand to take a bowl of wine from a hesitant and cautious Ulysses, who is distinguished by his red cloak. Two of his companions are behind him; the one in grey looks on anxiously while holding a second bowl that is being filled with wine by the other man, which will eventually be passed on to the giant via the hands of Ulysses.

THE MOSAIC BORDER

This wonderful mosaic is well preserved and, to reflect the cave’s environment, plus the mood of its captives, it has been constructed with dark tesserae. The intrusive odours from the goats and sheep, two of which are feeding, would have added to the men’s woes. The mosaicist also gives us a glimpse of the outside landscape, for in the top left and top right hand corners are trees with branches; between these, smaller bush-like trees are depicted. Initially the mosaic is enclosed by thick bands of black and then white tesserae, which then leads to the main design of reversed L-shapes bordered on both sides by small black towers.

From here we can now move on to view the room known as the Cubicle of Fruits.

THE CUBICLE OF THE FRUIT MOSAIC (50)

Behind the Vestibule of Polyphemus we discover a square-shaped room, with a north facing apse. It was probably a bedroom, although other scholars have suggested that it may also have been used as a dining room by the resident family. It appears that the walls of both the main room and the apse were lavishly decorated with figures taken from mythology, for in some parts the faint remains of frolicking cupids are still visible.

The main mosaic floor is engagingly flooded with red, green and yellow bands of guilloche and by connecting groups of lozenges. This geometric mosaic gives much exercise to my eyes as I seek to understand its design. It is dominated by nine twelve-pointed stars, stemming from overlapping and interwoven squares. Within these, each has a laurel garland, with green leaves on a black background or alternatively golden leaves on a red background. Each of the garlands encloses a basket of fruit which possibly includes one of the following: lemons, grapes, peaches, apples, pomegranates, figs, watermelons, pears or chestnuts. All the stars are joined together by the lozenges which embrace small over- and underlapping coloured rectangles. The lozenges in turn create octagons with internal rosettes of two different designs, while halves of these same designs also appear along the edges of the completed mosaic floor; this is then surrounded, in faded red and grey, by an elongated reversed Z-pattern border.

The narrow threshold between the main room and the alcove would have displayed a rectangular mosaic, but sadly very little of it remains; it has been suggested that it may have depicted a sequence of amusing cupids.

After viewing the intricate design of the previous floor, my eyes slowly absorb the peace and tranquillity that is generated by the mosaic in the alcove. This mosaic is skilfully assembled, revealing a pattern resembling the scales of a fish, but containing within them delicate red tulips. All stand in isolation but are protected and encased initially by a curving black border. This border is backed up by three supporting colours of either red, orange or grey. These three individual colours are laid in curving bands that slant in a line across the floor, while the choice of pale muted colours helps to create an ambience of restfulness, ideal for a bedroom. The whole mosaic is encased by a simple continuous border of guilloche.

Leaving this room I now make my way to the Cubicle with the Erotic Mosaic.

THE CUBICLE WITH THE EROTIC MOSAIC (51)

This room, possibly the bedroom of the Dominus, had two adjoining areas, with the front of the room slightly wider than the rectangular alcove at the rear. These were divided by two half columns with the strip between the pillars showing a mosaic featuring four children wearing smart tailored tunics, engaging in a competitive game using small balls or perhaps marbles. In front of the standing child on the left is a circle containing five, deliberately positioned balls, while to the far right, another child in a grey tunic has five balls collected in a line close to his right leg and seems to be playing a game of catch ball with, perhaps, his younger sister.

Looking with a keen eye, it seems probable that the child, second on the left, has just released a ball aimed in the direction of the five balls which are contained in the nearby circle. Beneath the children, is a round-tongued double guilloche border fabricated with many brightly coloured tesserae, in red, grey and orange.

As I seek out the frescoes, my eyes are drawn to the faded form of a dancing woman (a maenad) in a long and loose fitting dress of a light fabric. She owns a red scarf and, in my mind, she is using her hands to continually manoeuver it, slowly and seductively around her body. She dances and dances, until ultimately and eventually, she becomes a sensuously.

Dancing close by, in the next panel, is her male counterpart, a satyr, betrayed to us by his long curving tail. Both are centred in red triangles on a turquoise background while to their sides and below are horizontal and vertical bands, also of turquoise. Between the two dancers is an orange rectangle with a smaller red rectangle in its centre, all seemingly boxed in by more turquoise. More of the same design is seen to the left of the maenad. Unfortunately, the frescoes on the two side walls are unrecognizable, although it is probable that all would have related to the cult of Bacchus (Dionysus), who was possibly the last god of the twelve Olympians.

THE MAENAD

The mosaic floor within the alcove is a pleasant design of red and black intersecting circles. All the individual circles contain twenty dentils, in four sets of five, relative to the colour of their circle. But, within the intersections, the red and black dentils face each other. Also, a keen eye can see that within each completed circle the set design has created concave squares. At the centre of these squares are small white crosses, and their four quarters contain, opposite each other, the colours red and grey. The whole mosaic is bordered by a continuing half-oval design in white, with their centres filled with either red or grey, while hiding between the half-ovals are black thorns.

THE SATYR

When returning to the main room we are greeted by a mosaic floor which holds a rolling collection of geometric designs and some absorbing human imagery. Immediately my gaze is drawn the central dodecagon which encloses a laurel garland held together by four slanting straps. My eyes then focus upon the bare bottom of a woman as she shares an embrace with a young man; her gown has slipped out of her control as the couple enjoy a kiss. She seems to have an imperial hair style with a purple tie round her forehead, and the red band seen around her bare back would have held her breasts tight to her body; her beauty is supplemented with earrings and gold bracelets around her arms, wrists and ankles. Her lover wears a crown of laurel and, in his left hand, holds the strap of a smallish receptacle. This same hand also controls his extended cloak, where a basket filled with fruit is kept safe.

Close by, at the four cardinal points of the dodecagon, are artistic illustrations which represent the seasons of the year. All have female figures, elegantly and stylishly attired, set within a hexagon, and all of the busts are enclosed by a hexagonal border of red upon white, sea waves. At the top the bust with the crown of flowers depicts summer, while on the right hand side, the woman with the rose represents spring. Below is winter - a woman with wind swept hair who wears a pendant round her neck, has at her right shoulder a branch loaded with red berries. And finally to the left, a bust showing a large bunch of ripe grapes upon its head, is autumn.

As my eyes drift across more of this mosaic, they reveal that at the centre of the visible stars, are more laurel garlands, composed in gold on a red background, all encircling female busts. Their faces are hidden, or so it seems, by theatrical masks but whatever the symbolism is of these, it escapes me. Looking hard, it becomes clear that the thirty two linked squares of mat guilloche are the foot soldiers of this mosaic. They swarm across the floor helping to form the large eight pointed stars that run in diagonal directions around the central polygons and, strategically, they also bind the whole floor together. Within the points are motifs which closely resemble triangles, and these and the squares of guilloche share the same colours of red, grey and gold. On the sides and in the corners of the mosaic are half and quarter designs, alternatively revealing green laurel garlands and rolling red waves, while within them are motifs of leaves and colourful flowers.

Before leaving this bedroom I take some time to burrow into my imagination and to contemplate and ponder what I have just seen. In the alcove I seem to visualize that the thought of the jovial dancing maenads and satyrs could, for the Romans during this period in their social history, result in the abandonment of self-control and, with the aid of drunken intoxication, generate a period of sensual and animalistic behaviour.

Leaving the rowdy followers of Bacchus behind and stepping back into the main part of the room, the formulated mosaic here creates a more harmonious atmosphere. While looking at the lovers locked in an embrace I recall in my mind the spirited and passionate love story of Eros and Psyche (Anima), and imagine that perhaps this may well have been the bedroom where the children of the Dominus and his wife were conceived.

This stylish mosaic is well preserved and is further enhanced and complemented by a gentle flowing border of tongued guilloche, which holds the same colours of red, grey and gold, as seen in the main floor’s guilloche and triangle motifs.

When leaving this villa, and on my journey back to England, two major questions seem to need answers: where did the wealth needed to produce such opulence come from; and who lived within this extravagant villa?

Conclusion

History tells us that when the emperor Constantine 1 renamed the city of Byzantium in Turkey, to Constantinople, in 330AD, he made it the new capital of the Roman Empire. He then probably began to divert the grain exports from Egypt to his new capital and the eastern provinces of the empire. This decision would have caused a potential shortage of grain for the western provinces, for this cargo in the past had been destined for Rome. Consequently, Rome looked to the south for its grain, and this may well have stimulated a rejuvenation of Sicilian agriculture. This in turn would have given the economy of the island a huge monetary boost, stimulating a reorganization and modernising of their export procedures.

It is well recorded that the grain supply to the city of Rome was considered to be of the upmost strategic importance to the Roman generals and politicians. Therefore, it seems logical that the person responsible in Sicily would have been a high ranking senatorial aristocrat, and this villa became his residence as well as the centre of the large estates that were producing the grain.

During this person’s tenure in Sicily, he could also have had the task of organizing the roman military and slaves, in readiness for an expedition to Africa to capture more wild and exotic animals; these would meet their deaths, for public pleasure, in Roman amphitheatres. Perhaps he is depicted, below, in the Corridor of the Great hunt, being protected by two soldiers carrying shields.

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3 comments:

Anonymous24 October 2022 at 07:58
Just visited the site myself. Your blog is an extremely helpful and full description that my photos and memories of just two hours there could not hope to match. Thank you for posting.
James Alexander26 October 2022 at 14:23
Excellent trip report. Just been myself and this helped put all I saw in perspective.
heather4 September 2023 at 07:40
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